Bit rate

Baud rate
Goal in data communication is to increase the
bit rate while decreasing the baud rate.
Increasing the data rate, increases the speed
of transmission.
Decreasing the baud rate decreases the
bandwidth requirement.
Bit Rate= Baud rate * Number of bits per second
Figure 5-1

Different Conversion Schemes

Figure 5-2

Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-3

Types of Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-4

Unipolar Encoding
Figure 5-5

Types of Polar Encoding

 Polar schemes

The voltages are on both side of the time axis.

NRZ (non return to zero)
NRZ-L : The level of the voltage determines
the value of bit.
NRZ-I : the change in the level of the voltage
determines the level of the bit. If there is no
change, the bit is 0, if there is a change, the bit
is 1.
Figure 5-6
NRZ-L and NRZ-I Encoding
5.9
 when the voltage level in a digital signal is
constant for a while, the spectrum creates
very low frequencies. These frequencies
around zero, called DC components, present
problems for a short system that cannot pass
low frequencies.
 Return to zero

It uses three values: positive, negative and zero.

The signal changes not between bits but during
the bit. The signal goes to zero in the middle of
each bit.
The main disadvantage is that it requires two
signal changes to encode a bit and therefore
occupies greater bandwidth.
Another problem is its complexity.
Figure 5-7

RZ Encoding
Figure 5-8
Manchester and Diff. Manchester Encoding
 Manchester encoding : the duration of bits is
divided into two halves. The voltage remains
at one level during the first half and moves to
the other level in the second bit.
A negative to positive transition represents
binary 1 and a positive to negative transition
represents binary 0.
 Digital to Analog Conversion

Digital data needs to be carried on an

analog signal.
A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the
function of transporting the digital data in
an analog waveform.
The analog carrier signal is manipulated to
uniquely identify the digital data being
carried.

5.15
Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion

5.16
Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

5.17
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
or
ON-OFF Keying (OOK)

ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of

a carrier signal to reflect amplitude levels in the
digital signal.
For example: a digital 1 could not affect the
signal, whereas a digital 0 would, by making it
zero.

5.18
Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying

BW= (fc-Nbaud/2)+(fc-Nbaud/2)
BW=(1+d) * Nbaud
Note: Minimum value of d=0 (factor related to the modulation process)

5.19
Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK

5.20
 Frequency Shift Keying

The digital data stream changes the

frequency of the carrier signal, fc.
For example, a 1 could be represented by
f1=fc +f, and a 0 could be represented by
f2=fc-f.

5.21
Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying

BW= (fc1-fc0)+Nbaud

5.22
 Phase Shift Keyeing

We vary the phase shift of the carrier signal

to represent digital data.
PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is
not that vulnerable to noise, which changes
amplitude of the signal.

5.23
Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying

BW= (fc-Nbaud/2)+(fc-Nbaud/2)
BW=(1+d) * Nbaud
Note: Minimum value of d=0 (factor related to the modulation process)

5.24
 Quadrature PSK

To increase the bit rate, we can code 2 or more

bits onto one signal element.
In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that
every two incoming bits are split up and PSK a
carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is phase
shifted 90o from the other - in quadrature.
The two PSKed signals are then added to produce
one of 4 signal elements. L = 4 here.

5.25
Figure 5.11 QPSK and its implementation

5.26
Note

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.

5.27
Figure 8-1
Multiplexing vs. No Multiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-3

FDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-4
FDM, Time Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-6
Demultiplexing, Time Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Five channels, each with a l00-kHz
bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need
for a guard band of 10kHz between the
channels to prevent interference?
 WDM
WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of
different frequencies.
Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very
simple.
We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light
at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the de-multiplexer. The
combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a
prism.
Figure 8-8
TDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-9
Synchronous TDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-10
TDM, Multiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-11
TDM, Demultiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

 Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating
switches, one on the multiplexing side and the
other on the de-multiplexing side.
The switches are synchronized and rotate at the
same speed, but in opposite directions.
On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This
process is called interleaving.
On the de-multiplexing side, as the switch opens
in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
Figure 8-12
Framing Bits

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

 The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits to define
N different output lines with n =10g2 N.
For example, for eight different output lines, we need a 3-
bit address.
Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical
TDM, the ratio of the data size
to address size must be reasonable to make transmission
efficient. For example, it
would be inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when
the address is 3 bits. This would
mean an overhead of 300 percent.
In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less
than the sum of the capacities of each channel.
Statistical TDM or Asynchronous
TDM