General & Special Senses

Chapter objectives:

1. Distinguish between general and specific senses

2. Classify receptors according to stimulus detected,
body location, and histological structure
3. Describe the structures of the ear and eye
4. Explain the pathways of sound in the ear and light
in the eye
5. Identify, describe, and discuss the receptors and
neural pathways involved in each of the five special
senses
Classification of Sensory System
by structural Complexity
4 general senses
Nociceptors 5 special senses
Thermoceptors Olfaction
Mechanoceptors Gustation
Hearing
Chemoreceptors
Equilibrium
Vision
 simplest receptor type:
free nerve endings

Sensory
Receptors

= specialized cells or cell processes monitoring

conditions in/outside body ( extero- and
interoceptors)

Receptors are specific for a certain type of stimulus

receptor specificity

All sensory receptors are transducers, changing

incoming stimulus of pressure, vibration, light, etc.,
into electro-chemical neuron impulses.
 Area monitored
by one receptor:
=

Fig 18-1

The larger the receptive field, the poorer ability to

localize stimulus (2 pt. discrimination test)
Complexity Range of Receptors

Free nerve Encapsulated Specialized

ending nerve ending receptor cells
 Four General Senses
1. Nociceptors
Respond to heat, mechanical stress
and chemicals associated with
tissue damage
Most concentrated in skin
Fast pain (to cortex, usually triggers reflex)
Slow pain (later, persistent, indistinct
source)
Referred pain (visceral, "incorrect" source
perceived)
2) Thermoreceptors
Respond to changes in temperature
In dermis, skeletal muscles, liver and
hypothalamus
Free nerve endings
Cold receptors
> warm receptors
3) Mechanoreceptors
Respond to physical distortion of cell membrane (e.g.:
stretching, twisting, compression)

Subdivided into

1. Baroreceptors Sensitive to internal pressures: blood

pressure, lung stretch, digestive tract tension

2. Proprioceptors monitors of muscle stretch

3. Tactile receptors - touch, pressure, vibration
Unencapsulated: free nerve endings, Merkels dics - fine touch
Encapsulated: Meissners corpuscles - fine touch; Pacinian corpuscles
- deep pressure
4) Chemoreceptors
Respond to small concentration
changes of specific molecules
(chemicals)

Internal chemoreceptors
monitor blood composition
(e.g. Na+, pH, pCO2 ) Fig 18-5

Found within aortic and carotid

bodies

Very important for homeostasis

 Special Senses

Olfaction
Taste
Organ responsible ??
Vision
Hearing
Equilibrium
 Olfaction: Paired Olfactory Organs

Olfactory epithelium (10-20

Mio receptors / 5 cm2)
Type of receptor??
Responds to molecules
dissolved in mucus or lipids

Easy to recognize hard to

categorize

(Only) neuron that can be

replaced in adult

Through cribriform plate of

ethmoid to olfactory bulb
 Olfactory Pathways
Receptor neurons pass into cranium through
cribiform plate and synapse in olfactory bulbs.

Olfactory neurons are the only neurons known

1. to routinely replace themselves
2. to reach the cerebrum without synapsing in the
thalamus

Olfactory discrimination - Although difficult to

describe, the number of different odors
recognizable is immense.
3 types of papillae
1) Filiform - thin, thread like
projections
2) Fungiform - shaped like
mushrooms.
3) Circumvallate - large target-
shaped bumps near the
back of the tongue
Papillae contain taste buds
Taste buds contain group of
receptor & support cells
Gustation
How many 1o taste
sensations?
 Gustatory Pathway
Cranial nerves VII, IX and X to nucleus solitarius
in medulla oblongata to gustatory cortex

Fig 18.8
Hearing & Equilibrium

2 other names??
Middle Ear

Function of the
2 muscles?
 Bony labyrinth vs. membranous labyrinth
Perilymph vs. endolymph
Cochlea & vestibular complex

Inner Ear
 Structure of cochlea: 2.5 turns of ducts

central hub of cochlea

 Organ of Corti
Basilar membrane on which sit hair cells with stereocilia
Tectorial membrane above the hair cells
Sound causes hair cells to bounce and touch tectorial
membrane causing transduction
Auditory Pathway
Cochlear branch of CN VIII

To cochlear
nucleus of
medulla

To inferior colliculus of
opposite side of midbrain

To thalamus

To auditory cortex
Vestibular Complex:
Semicircular canals with ampullae (mutually
perpendicular)
Saccule and utricle (= fill up vestibule)
Two Receptor Organs: Maculae of
Vestibule (or: macula of saccule plus
macula of utricle)
 Cristae ampullaris
(how many?)
Vision: Eyeball +
Accessory Structures
Palpebrae = Eyelid
Continuation of skin

Eyelashes

Meibomian glands (on inner margin of

lid)
lipid rich product, fu?
bacterial infection chalazion

Conjunctiva (= mucous membrane)

over cornea very thin (5-7 cells thick)
Lacrimal Apparatus
Lacrimal gland with several ducts - superior and
lateral to eye
Lacrimal puncta (superior and inferior) - holes
near nose to drain tears
Lacrimal canaliculi - drain
tears to
Nasolacrimal duct -
empties to nasal cavity
Compare to fig 18.18
Secretion contains lysozyme
Extrinsic Eyemuscles (see p.272)
4 recti

2 oblique

Innervation?
The Three Tunics:
1) Fibrous Tunic (tough outer layer)
sclera - white part of fibrous tunic
cornea - transparent avascular anterior part
limbus - boundary between the above

2) Vascular Tunic (= Uvea)

choroid - heavily vascular
iris with pupil hole - inner sphincter
and outer radial muscles
ciliary body - muscle attached to
suspensory ligaments,
regulates focus of lens
 Lens and Chambers of the Eye
Ciliary body
Suspensory ligaments
Anterior and posterior
chambers (= anterior Glaucoma=?
cavity) with aqueous humor
Posterior cavity with vitreous
humor
Cataract See fig 18.21
 3) Nervous Tunic: Retina
Outer layer pigmented - inner layer photoreceptors
a) rods - black/white vision, dim light
b) cones - color vision, intense light
Bipolar cells - synapse with rods and cones
Ganglion cells - synapse with bipolar cells
Ora serrata - anterior edge of retina
Macula lutea fovea centralis - all cones, best vision
Optic disc blind spot, where optic nerve See
exits eye
Fig 18.22

Optic nerve
fu?
Eye Fundus: clinical significance ?
Visual Pathway
Optic chiasma - optic nerves partially
cross (right side of the field of each
eye combining and going to the
lateral geniculate on the right, those
from the left to the left)

To superior colliculus and thalamus

To visual cortex in __________ lobe

 Cutaneous Membrane
Accessory Structures
Made up of all 4 tissue types . . . .??
 Two Major Subdivisions
Cutaneous Membrane
Epidermis
Dermis
Hypodermis

Accessory Structures
Excretory glands (?)
?
?
Epidermis

Type of Epithelium?
_vascular
Different layers
(=strata)
4 layers in
thin skin
5 layers in
thick skin
Cell types:
Stratum Germinativum
Stem cells (basal cells)
Melanocytes
Merkel cells (touch receptors in hairless skin only)

= stratum
Stratum
basale
germinativum
Innermost,
single layer
 Stratum Spinosum
Stem cell daughter cells (some can still divide)
Melanocytes & Langerhans cells
Establishment of Desmosomes

Stratum
spinosum
Several cells
thick
 Stratum Granulosum
Cells displaced from stratum spinosum Keratinocytes
Production of keratohyalin and keratin fibers
Cells start to die. Dehydration leaves interlocked layers of
keratin, keratohyalin & PL membranes

Stratum
granulosum
 Stratum Lucidum
In palms of hands and soles of feet
Cells do not stain well clear (lucid) looking

Stratum
lucidum
 Many layers of flattened, dead cells, filled with keratin
Continually shed in sheaths
Water-resistant but not water proof ( insensible
perspiration)
Relatively dry - advantage?
Keratinization occurs everywhere except for anterior
surface of eye
Stratum Corneum
Stratum
15-30 layers corneum
(much thicker
in thick skin)
 Thin vs. Thick Skin
Refers to epidermis
Average 0.08 mm Up to 6 x thicker
Rest of body Where??
 Contour of skin surface follows pattern of
epidermal ridges. Advantage ??

Unique fingerprints
Skin Color
depends on 3 pigments
Hemoglobin (dermal blood supply)
Reddish tones
Pale, due to?
Bluish (=?), due to?

Melanin
Produced by melanocytes of stratum basale
Carotene
Obtained from plant foods
Melanocytes
Function ?

Number of
melanocytes same
in all people,
production levels
differ !
 Dermis

Papillary layer
loose c.t.
Reticular layer
dense
irregular c.t.
 Papillary Layer
Dermal papillae
project between
epidermal ridges.
Consist of
M Loose c.t. = _____
Capillaries
Tactile receptors
 Reticular Layer
Consist of
______________ c.t.
+ ??

Pacinian corpuscule
(deep pressure)
Hypodermis
2 other names ?
Indistinct boundary (c.t.
fibers interwoven)
Made up of
Loose c.t. + lots of . . .
Function
Stabilization of skin while
allowing for independent
movement
Clinical Brief:
Wrinkles
Stretch marks
(lineae albicantes)
Decubitus
Transdermal medication
Advantage and disadvantage?
Examples?
Hypodermic needles

Lines of
cleavage
 Accessory Structures: Hair Follicles & Hair

5 mio hair/hu body.

(98% not on top of
head)
Three hair types (vellus
intermediate terminal)

Function ?
Hair color
Growth cycle
Skin Glands: 1) Sebaceous Glands
Holocrine
Sebum discharged into hair follicles
(lubrication & bactericidal)
excessive shampooing leads to dry & brittle hair
Sebaceous follicles,
= Large sebaceous
glands, discharge
directly to epidermis
Where ?
Folliculitis; furuncle
(boil); acne
2) Apocrine Sweat Glands
Have merocrine secretion!!
Empty into hair follicle
Location: armpits, groin, nipples
Viscous, cloudy secretion good nutrient
source for bacteria (odor !!)
Secretion may contain Pheromones
Secretion begins at puberty and is stimulated
during emotional distress (cold sweat)
3) Merocrine Sweat Glands
Empty directly onto skin surface
Location: most all over body (esp.
abundant on palms & soles: ~ 500/cm2)
Clear, watery secretion (99% H2O; rest
NaCl + some waste products)
Sensible perspiration; Function: ?
 For purpose of completion:
Other integumentary Glands:

Mammary glands: Modified apocrine

sweat glands

Ceruminous glands: modified sweat

glands in __________
 Nails not covered.
Skin and Aging Process