Chapter 13

Seismic, Sequence and Magnetic Stratigraphy

Seismic stratigraphy: the study of seismic data for the purpose of
extracting stratigraphic information.
Sequence stratigraphy: the study of a sedimentary sequences and an
outgrowth of seismic stratigraphy, but not limited to seismic
stratigraphy.
Sedimentary sequence: a stratigraphic unit composed of a relatively
conformable succession of genetically related strata that is bounded at
its top and base by unconformities or their correlative conformities.
Sequence: one cycle of deposition bounded by nonmarine erosion,
deposited by one significant cycle of rise and fall of base level. (Think
sea level change.)
Magnetostratigraphy: uses records of changes in polarity of the
geomagnetic field preserved in sedimentary sequences to correlate
between wells and to date the sediment. Individual normal and reverse
polarity intervals ("Chrons") typically range from ~10 thousand to 10
million years in duration.
 Principles of Reflection Seismic Methods
Seismic Waves: (P wavesCompressional & S wavesShear)
P waves: fastest seismic wave given name of primary wave

S waves: transverse seismic wave; secondary wave.

Reflection: a wave that meets a boundary at a specific angle will
bounce off the boundary at the same angle as the incident angle.
Refraction: the deflection of a propagating wave at the boundary
between two mediums with different refractive indices.

Reflection Refraction
Seismic sources: generate controlled seismic energy that is used in
both reflection and refraction seismic surveys. A seismic source can
be simple, such as dynamite or even a hammer; or it can use more
sophisticated technology, such as a specialized air gun.
1940s Seismic exploration on land
Marine Seismic Surveying
Seismic record using the variable-density method of printing
(light intensity is varied to display wave amplitude differences)
Reflection configuration: the gross stratification patterns identified
on seismic records.
Reflection continuity: depends upon the continuity of the density-
velocity contrast along bedding surfaces or unconformities. It is
closely associated with continuity of strata, and it provides
information about depositional processes and environment.
Sequence stratigraphy is based on the premise that sedimentary
successions can be divided into unconformity-bounded units that
form during a single, major cycle of sea-level change.
Sequence stratigraphy attempts to place stratal units into a
predictable, chronostratigraphic framework by demonstrating how
their generation is related to accommodation space.
Table 13.2 Hierarchy of Sequence-Stratigraphic Units

Depositional Sequence genetically related strata bounded by surfaces of

erosion or nondeposition or their correlative conformities.

Stratal units within sequences include:

Depositional System a three-dimensional assemblage of lithofacies,

genetically linked by active (modern) or inferred (ancient) processes and
environments (e.g., fluvial, deltaic, barrier-island).

System tract a subdivision of a depositional system. Four main kinds are

recognized: highstand (sediment deposited during high sea level) , falling-
stage (sediment deposited as sea falls from high to low), lowstand
(sediment deposited during low sea level and early rising sea level), and
transgressive (sediment deposited during rising sea level).

Parasequence Set - a succession of genetically related parasequences that

form a distinctive stacking pattern that is bounded, in many cases, by major
marine-flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces.

Parasequence a relatively conformable succession of genetically related

beds or bedsets (within a parasequence set) bounded by marine flooding
surfaces or their correlative surfaces.

Marine flooding surface a surface that separates younger from older

strata, across which there is evidence of an abrupt increase in water
depth.
Progradational parasequence:a parasequence set in which
successively younger parasequences are deposited farther
basinward; overall the rate of deposition is greater than the rate
of accommodation.
Retrogradational parasequence: parasequences that advance in a
landward direction.
Aggradational parasequence: parasequences that build vertically.
Highstand system tracts: consists of an aggradational to
progradational set of parasequences that overlies the maximum
flooding surface and that is overlain by the next sequence boundary.
During the highstand systems tract, the rate of relative sea level rise
begins to slow and relative sea level eventually begins to fall prior to
the next sequence boundary.
Falling-stage system tracts: form as sea level falls from a
highstand position during a forced regression.
Forced regression: accommodation space is reduced as the
shoreline moves in a seaward direction and also moves lower down
the depositional profile. As a result the coastal plain is bypassed and
sediment is deposited in a more seaward position.
Lowstand system tract: begin to form after relative sea level has
fallen to its minimum and begun to rise, creating a small amount of
accommodation space.
Transgressive system tract: retrogradational sequences where the
site of deposition shifts in a landward direction. The rate at which
accommodation space is created is greater than the rate of sediment
supply. Transgressive surfaces are marked by marine sediments
overlying nonmarine sediments.
_____________
When the sea level approaches its maximum, the rate of
sedimentation eventually exceeds the rate of sea-level rise and
aggradation to strong progradation generates a new highstand system
tract and the cycle begins again.
System tract review
Magnetostratigraphy: uses records of changes in polarity of the
geomagnetic field preserved in sedimentary sequences to correlate
between wells and to date the sediment.
Curie point: the critical temperature of about 500C - 600C (for
magnetite) where iron-bearing minerals become magnetized in
alignment with the Earths magnetic field. When cooled further, the
magnetite molecules with retain this orientation unless subsequently
heated past Curie point. This semipermanent alignment is referred
to as thermal remanent magnetism.
Detrital remanent magnetism: When the preferred orientation of
magnetic minerals in sedimentary rocks imparts bulk magnetic
properties to the rocks.
How?
During deposition of sediments, small magnetic mineral grains are
able to rotate in the loose unconsolidated sediment of the
depositional surface and thus align themselves mechanically with
Earths magnetic field.
Geomagnetic polarity time scale
for last 5 million years.
Global magnetic reversal patterns from
Spreading ridges.
13.26
13.27
13.28
Paleomagnetic correlations of cores from the Arctic, Pacific, Indian,
and Atlantic oceans. Cores have different lithologies and fossil
assemblages.
Chapter 14: Biostratigraphy
Biostratigraphy: the
characterization and correlation
of rock units on the basis of their
fossil content.
Stratigraphic paleontology: the
study of fossils and their
distributions in various geologic
formations.
Principle of Faunal Succession:
Sedimentary rock strata are observed to contain fossilized flora
and fauna, and that these fossil forms succeed each other in a
specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide distances.
Stage: (Defined by dOrbigny) groups of strata containing the same
major fossil assemblages. The boundaries of the stage are defined at
intervals marked by the last appearance, or disappearance, of
distinctive assemblages of life forms and their replacement in the
rock record by other assemblages.
Zone: (Defined by Oppel after Quenstedt criticized dOrbigny)
small-scale units defined by the stratigraphic ranges of fossil species
irrespective of lithology of the fossil-bearing beds. Each zone was
characterized by the joint occurrence of species not found together
above or below the defined zone. (a.k.a. biozone).
Index fossil (species): ubiquitous forms of life which existed during
limited periods of geologic time and thus are used as guides to the
age of the rocks in which they are preserved.
Biogeographic province: an area within a zone defined by
geographic limitations beyond which the zone cannot be traced.
(think local versus global).
Index Fossils
Overlapping ranges within an Oppel zone
Principle types of biozones
A. Taxon-range biozone
B. Concurrent-range
biozone
C. Interval biozone (lowest
occurrences of taxa)
D. Interval biozone (highest
occurrences of taxa)
E. Lineage biozone
F. Assemblage biozone
G. Abundance biozone
Two hypothetical assemblage biozones
Abundance zones
of three
hypothetical
fossil species.
**Caution:
Correlation by
abundance zones
may not yield true
time correlation as
the same species may
achieve maximum
abundance at
different times in
different localities.
Taxonomic classification (Linnaean system)
Models and rates of Evolution
Mass Extinctions: dramatic reductions in
numbers and diversity at particular times in the
geologic record.

The big five

Proposed causes for the main Phanerozoic
extinction events
Biocorrelation: the correlation of lithostratigraphic units on the
basis of their fossil contents.
Correlation on the basis of taxon-range and
interval biozones
Globorotalia truncatulinoides
Cool period Warm period