Digital Communications

Is the transmission of digital pulses
between two or more points in a

communication system.
Binary Transmission
BIT
Is a contraction of the term binary digit
A unit of information represented by either a 1
or 0
BIT RATE / DATA RATE

The number of 0s and 1s that pass on a
communication channel each second
Transmission rate in bits per second
BIT ERROR RATE

A measure of data connectivitys performance
Often the unit of measurement is bit error rate
(BER), which is probability of error
A BER of 1 in 105 means that there is a probability
of one error will occur for every 100,000 bits
Binary Information Codes
Types of Characters
Data Link Control Characters
-used to facilitate the orderly flow of
data from a source to a destination
Graphic Control Characters

-involve the syntax or presentation of
the data at the received terminal
Alphanumeric Characters
-used to represent the various symbols
used for letters, numbers, and punctuation
in the English language
Data Communication Codes
-character sets or character languages
MORSE CODE
the first data communication code with
three unequal length symbols.
Table of Morse Code
BAUDOT CODE
the first fixed-length character code. It is a 5
bit character code, with a start bit and a 1.5
stop bits
Jean-Maurice-Emile Baudot
AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR
INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII)
it uses 7 bits of
information, an 8th bit
for use as parity, a start
bit and two stop bits
EXTENDED BINARY CODE DECIMAL
INTERCHANGE CODE (EBCDIC)
the true 8 level code
CCITT ALPHABET NO. 5 CODE
a 7 bit character set which has 27 or 128
codes
also with a parity bit
CCITT ALPHABET NO. 2 CODE

character length similar to Baudot code
but without start and stop bits
HOLLERITH CODE
consist of 12 bits information with the
12th bit for parity.
Herman Hollerith
Binary Transmission Conventions
PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
bits are transmitted character at a time
i.e. eight bits are transmitted
simultaneously over eight wires.
an additional wire called strobe or clock
lead notifies the receiver unit that all the
bits are present on their respective wires
so that the voltages on the wires can be
sampled.
Binary Transmission Conventions
SERIAL TRANSMISSION
bits are transmitted over a single line one
bit at a time
used when the cost of the communication
medium is high
PARALLEL AND SERIAL TRANSMISSION
Synchronization on Digital Signals
ASYNCHRONOUS
transmission in which time intervals
between transmitted characters may be of
unequal length
transmission is controlled by start and
stop bits at the beginning and end of
each character
SYNCHRONOUS
transmission in which data are sent at a
fixed rate, with the receiver and
transmitter synchronized
synchronized transmission eliminates the
need for start and stop bits
ISOCHRONOUS
a combination of asynchronous and
synchronous transmission
the data are clocked by a common timing
base, and bytes are also framed with start
and stop bits
Digital Transmission Modes
SIMPLEX
data transmission is unidirectional
information can be sent only in one
direction
simplex lines are also called receive-only,
transmit-only, or one-way only lines
HALF DUPLEX (HDX)
data transmission is possible in both
directions but not at the same time
HDX lines are also called two-way
alternate or either way lines
FULL-DUPLEX (FDX)
data transmission is possible in both
directions at the same time but they must
be between the same two stations
FDX lines are also called two-way
simultaneous, duplex, or both-way lines
FULL/FULL DUPLEX (F/FDX)
data transmission is in both directions at
the same time but not the same two
stations
F/FDX is possible only on multipoint
circuits
Types of Data Circuits
TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT
it involves a transmission medium that
either uses two wires (a signal and a
reference lead or a configuration that is
equivalent to having only two wires
simplex, HDX, or FDX transmission is
possible
FOUR-WIRE CIRCUIT
it involves a transmission medium that
uses four wires (two are used as signals
that are propagating in opposite direction
and two are used for reference leads) or a
configuration that is equivalent to having
four wires
SWITCHED CIRCUIT
in telephone network, a call is
automatically switched through its
destination after dialing has been
completed.
LEASED CIRCUIT
a permanent circuit used for private use
within a communication network with the
line directly between two locations or
routed through a central office
Voice Channel Transmission Impairments
AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
distortion caused by the variation of
transmission loss with frequency
PHASE DISTORTION
is the resultant of different velocities
of propagation at different frequencies
across the voice channel.
NOISE
it is a spurious or extraneous signal that
interferes with the wanted signal.
CROSSTALK
it is defined as the undesired energy
appearing in one signal path as a
result of coupling from another signal
path
ECHO
it is the return of talkers voice or other
end-user signal
SINGING
it is the result of sustained oscillations
due to positive feedback in amplifying
circuits
Digital Modulation Techniques
1. AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
-two (2) power levels (high and low) are
to represent 1 or 0 based on amplitude (1-
high; 0-low)
2. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)
-binary states are represented by two
different frequencies
-a simple, low performance digital
modulation
3. PHASE SHIFT KEYING
-there is a phase reversal of 180 to
indicate change in state from 0 to 1 or vice
versa
3.a BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK)
-two output phases are possible for a
single carrier frequency (1 & 0)
-as the input signal changes state, the
phase of the output carrier shifts between 2
angles that are 180
3.b QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING
(QPSK)
- four (4) possible pair of bits are
represented by 4 different phases of the
carrier
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
(QAM)
-digital information is contained in both
the amplitude and phase of the transmitted
carrier.
Error Detection and Correction Techniques
ERROR DETECTION
The process of monitoring the received
data and determining when a transmission
error has occurred.
Error Detection
1. REDUNDANCY
-involves transmitting each character
twice. If the same character is not received
2x in succession, an error has occurred
-retransmission of the entire message is
very inefficient, because second
transmission of a message is 100%
redundant
Error Detection
2. PARITY-CHECK (50% detection)
-the simplest error detection scheme
-used for data communications systems
and with both vertical and horizontal
redundancy checking
-with parity, a single bit is added to each
character to force a total number of 1s in
the character, including the parity bit, to
be either an odd (odd parity) or even
number (even parity)
Error Detection
EVEN PARITY
Bias bit = logic 0
> a 1 indicates an error, 0 means no
error
Error Detection
ODD PARITY
Bias bit = logic 1
> a 1 indicates no error, 0 means there is
no error
Error Detection
VERTICAL & HORIZONTAL REDUNDANCY
CHECK (95-98% detection)
-a parity bit is added to each character
to force the total number of 1s in the
character including the parity bit, to be
either an odd number (odd parity) or an
even number (even parity)
Error Detection
2.a VERTICAL REDUNDANCY CHECKING
(VRC)
-an error detection scheme that uses
parity to determine if a transmission error
has occurred within a character
-VRC is XORing of the bits within a single
character
CHARACTER PARITY
-each character has a parity added to it
prior to transmission
Error Detection
2.b HORIZONTAL / LONGITUDINAL
REDUNDANCY CHECKING
(HRC OR LRC)
an error-detection scheme that uses
parity to determine if an error has
occurred in a message (message parity)
with LRC, each bit position has a parity
bit
LRC is the result of XORing the characters
that make up a message and only even
parity is used. The bit sequence of an LRC
is often called Block Check Sequence
(BCS)
VRC bit for each character is computed in
the vertical direction, LRC bit is computed
Error Detection
3. EXACT COUNT ENCODING
- the number of 1s in each character is
the same
4. ECHOBACK / ECHOPLEX
- a character is sent back to the operator
for the operator to check errors
- mode of transmission that achieves less
than full-duplex but more than half-duplex
- achieved by having the answer DTE
retransmit (echo) the received message back
to the originating DTE for decoding and
display
Error Detection
5. CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK (CRC)
- most reliable scheme for error
detection; 99.95 % of errors are
detected
- it is generally used with 8 bit codes
such as EBCDIC or 7 bit codes without
parity
- the CRC character is the remainder
of a division process using an XOR
operation. If no transmission occurred,
the remainder will be zero.
- the number of bits in CRC code is
equal to the highest exponent o the
generating polynomial. The exponent
Error Correction
1. SYMBOL SUBSTITUTION
-designed to be used in a human
environment at the receiver
-a reverse question mark is
substituted for bad character
2. RETRANSMISSION / AUTOMATIC
REQUEST FOR RETRANSMISSION (ARQ)
-resending a message when it is
received in error. The received terminal
automatically calls for retransmission of
the entire message
-optimal ARQ message blocks = 256
to 512 characters
Error Correction
3. FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION
- the only error correction scheme that
actually detects and corrects transmission
errors at the receive end without calling for
retransmission of the entire message
- bits are added to the message prior to
transmission
Error Correction
R. W. HAMMING CODE
The most popular correcting code
Developed by R. W. Hamming at Bell Labs
The number of bits in a Hamming code is
dependent on the number of bits in the
data character,
2n m + n +1
Where: m = no. of bits in the data

character
n = no. of Hamming bits
Levels of Synchronization
1. BIT OR CLOCK SYNCHRONIZATION
- identifies the start / beginning and
stop / end of each bit transmitted
- it ensures that the transmitter and
receiver agree on a precise time slot for the
occurrence of the bit
- it allows the receive DTE to know when
to sample the incoming bit stream
- Fast or slow bit sampling rate result to
errors
Levels of Synchronization
2. CHARACTER SYNCHRONIZATION
- identifies start and stop of each
individual character transmitted
3. BLOCK OR MESSAGE SYNCHRONIZATION
- addresses the start and stop of large
amounts of data
4. MODEM OR CARRIER SYNCHRONIZATION
- performed between modems so that
the received signals may be properly
demodulated
EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing
RS 232C (V.24 CCITT Equivalent)
It is an interface between the DTE (Data
Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data
Communications Equipment) employing
serial binary data interchange
It is a first level protocol standard as well as
an electrical standard specifying
handshaking and functions between the DTE
and DCE
Transmission rate is 20 kbps for a distance
not more than 50 ft.; load impedance at
terminator side is between 3000 to 7000
ohms
RS 422A
It defines electrical characteristics of
balanced-voltage digital interface circuits.
It is a differential balanced voltage interface
standard capable of significantly higher data
rates over long distances.
It can accommodate 100 kbps over a
distance of 4000 ft (1200 m) or rates up to
10 Mbps over a maximum distance of 40 ft
(12 m)
RS 423A
It defines electrical characteristics of
unbalanced-voltage digital interface circuits
Single-ended, bipolar and unterminated
voltage circuit like RS 232C
It extends the distance and data rate
capabilities to distances up to 4000 ft (1200
m) at a data rate of 3 kbps or at higher data
rates of up to 300 kbps over a maximum
distance of 40 ft (12 m)
RS 357
It defines interface between Facsimile
Terminal Equipment and VF Data Terminal
Equipment
RS 366 A (V.25 CCITT Equivalent)

It defines interface between DTE and
Automatic Calling Equipment for Data
Communications
RS 408
It recommends the standardization of the
two interfaces between the numerical
control equipment (such as tape reader) and
the serial-to-parallel converter with less than
40 ft (12 m) distance.
RS 449 (V.35 CCITT Equivalent)
It is general-purpose 37-position and 9-
position interface for DTE and DCE
employing serial binary data interchange.
It offers greater immunity to noise and
increase the data signaling rate to 2 Mbps
and permits an increase up to 200 m in the
length of the interconnecting cable.
CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing
X.21
Interface between DTE and Data
Terminating Equipment for Synchronous
operation on Public Data Networks
X.24
List of Definitions for Interchange Circuits
between Data Terminal equipment and Data
Terminating Equipment on Public Data
Networks
CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing
X.25
Interface between DTE and DCE for
Terminals Operating in the Packet Mode on
Public data Networks.
It is a standard protocol for interfacing a
terminal to packet network.
Defines the architecture of three levels of
protocols existing in the serial interface
cable between a packet mode terminal and
give away to a packet network.
Digital Interfacing
Centronics Parallel Interface
Designed by Centronics Computer data
Corporation for use with their line of
printers
36 pins
IEEE 488 Bus

General Purpose Interface Bus
Hewlett Packard Interface Bus
Used in connecting printers to mini and
micro-computer systems
Interface for the remote control of and data
acquisition from test instruments (24 pins)

Digital Communications

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Digital Communications

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Is the transmission of digital pulses

between two or more points in a

BIT RATE / DATA RATE

BIT ERROR RATE

Graphic Control Characters

CCITT ALPHABET NO. 2 CODE

Where: m = no. of bits in the data

RS 366 A (V.25 CCITT Equivalent)

IEEE 488 Bus

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