COMP 482: Design and

Analysis of Algorithms
Spring 2013

Lecture 4
Prof. Swarat Chaudhuri
 Q3: Analyzing an algorithm

You have an array A with integer entries A[1],, A[n]

Output a 2-D array B such that B[i,j] contains the sum A[i] + A[i+1] +
+ A[j]

Here is an algorithm:

For i=1, 2, , n
For j = i+1, 2, , n {
Add up entries A[i] through A[j]
Store result in B[i,j]
}
}

Obtain an upper bound and a lower bound for the algorithm.

2
 The lower bound is the more interesting one

Consider the times during the execution of the algorithm when i n/4
and j 3n/4.

In these cases, j i + 1 3n/4 n/4 + 1 > n/2. Therefore, adding up the

array entries A[i] through A[j] would require at least n/2
operations, since there are more then n/2 terms to add up.

How many times during the execution of the given algorithm do we

encounter such cases? There are (n/4)2 pairs (i, j) with i n/4 and j
3n/4. the given algorithm enumerates over all of them, and as
shown above, it must perform at least n/2 operations for each such
pair. Therefore, the algorithm must perform at least n/2.(n/4)2 =
n3/32 operations. This is (n3), as desired.

3
 Graphs
3.1 Basic Definitions and Applications
 Undirected Graphs

Undirected graph. G = (V, E)

V = nodes.
E = edges between pairs of nodes.
Captures pairwise relationship between objects.
Graph size parameters: n = |V|, m = |E|.

V = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }
E = { 1-2, 1-3, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 3-5, 3-7, 3-8, 4-5, 5-6 }
n=8
m = 11

5
 Some Graph Applications

Graph Nodes Edges

transportation street intersections highways
communication computers fiber optic cables
World Wide Web web pages hyperlinks
social people relationships
food web species predator-prey
software systems functions function calls
scheduling tasks precedence constraints
circuits gates wires

6
 World Wide Web

Web graph.
Node: web page.
Edge: hyperlink from one page to another.

cnn.com

netscape.com novell.com cnnsi.com timewarner.com

hbo.com

sorpranos.com

7
 9-11 Terrorist Network

Social network graph.

Node: people.
Edge: relationship between two people.

Reference: Valdis Krebs, http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_4/krebs

8
 Ecological Food Web

Food web graph.

Node = species.
Edge = from prey to predator.

Reference: http://www.twingroves.district96.k12.il.us/Wetlands/Salamander/SalGraphics/salfoodweb.giff

9
 Graph Representation: Adjacency Matrix

Adjacency matrix. n-by-n matrix with Auv = 1 if (u, v) is an edge.

Two representations of each edge.
Space proportional to n2.
Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes (1) time.
Identifying all edges takes (n2) time.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
3 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
7 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
8 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

10
 Graph Representation: Adjacency List

Adjacency list. Node indexed array of lists.

Two representations of each edge.
degree = number of neighbors of u
Space proportional to m + n.
Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes O(deg(u)) time.
Identifying all edges takes (m + n) time.

1 2 3

2 1 3 4 5

3 1 2 5 7 8

4 2 5

5 2 3 4 6

6 5

7 3 8

8 3 7

11
 Paths and Connectivity

Def. A path in an undirected graph G = (V, E) is a sequence P of nodes

v1, v2, , vk-1, vk with the property that each consecutive pair vi, vi+1 is
joined by an edge in E.

Def. A path is simple if all nodes are distinct.

Def. An undirected graph is connected if for every pair of nodes u and

v, there is a path between u and v.

12
 Cycles

Def. A cycle is a path v1, v2, , vk-1, vk in which v1 = vk, k > 2, and the
first k-1 nodes are all distinct.

cycle C = 1-2-4-5-3-1

13
 Trees

Def. An undirected graph is a tree if it is connected and does not

contain a cycle.

Theorem. Let G be an undirected graph on n nodes. Any two of the

following statements imply the third.
G is connected.
G does not contain a cycle.
G has n-1 edges.

14
 Rooted Trees

Rooted tree. Given a tree T, choose a root node r and orient each edge
away from r.

Importance. Models hierarchical structure.

root r

parent of v

child of v

a tree the same tree, rooted at 1

15
 Phylogeny Trees

Phylogeny trees. Describe evolutionary history of species.

16
 GUI Containment Hierarchy

GUI containment hierarchy. Describe organization of GUI widgets.

Reference: http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/uiswing/overview/anatomy.html

17
3.2 Graph Traversal
 Connectivity

s-t connectivity problem. Given two nodes s and t, is there a path

between s and t?

s-t shortest path problem. Given two nodes s and t, what is the length
of the shortest path between s and t?

Applications.
Facebook.
Maze traversal.
Erdos number.
Kevin Bacon number.
Fewest number of hops in a communication network.

19
 Breadth First Search

BFS intuition. Explore outward from s in all possible directions, adding

nodes one "layer" at a time. Effect: find shallow paths to nodes.

s L1 L L
BFS algorithm. 2 n-1

L0 = { s }.
L1 = all neighbors of L0.
L2 = all nodes that do not belong to L0 or L1, and that have an edge
to a node in L1.
Li+1 = all nodes that do not belong to an earlier layer, and that have
an edge to a node in Li.

Theorem. For each i, Li consists of all nodes at distance exactly i

from s. There is a path from s to t iff t appears in some layer.

20
 Implementing BFS

Q: Whats a good way to implement the above algorithm?

A: Use a queue for the frontier

21
 Breadth First Search

Property. Let T be a BFS tree of G = (V, E), and let (x, y) be an edge of
G. Then the level of x and y differ by at most 1.

L0

L1

L2

L3

22
 Breadth First Search: Analysis

Theorem. The above implementation of BFS runs in O(m + n) time if

the graph is given by its adjacency list representation.

Pf.
Easy to prove O(n2) running time:
at most n lists Li
each node occurs on at most one list; for loop runs n times
when we consider node u, there are n incident edges (u, v),
and we spend O(1) processing each edge

Actually runs in O(m + n) time:

when we consider node u, there are deg(u) incident edges (u, v)
total time processing edges is uV deg(u) = 2m

each edge (u, v) is counted exactly twice

in sum: once in deg(u) and once in deg(v)

23
 Connected Component

Connected component. Find all nodes reachable from s.

Connected component containing node 1 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }.

24
 Q1: Finding connected components

Give an algorithm to find the set of all connected components of an

undirected graph.

25
 Connected Component

Connected component. Find all nodes reachable from s.

R
s

u v

it's safe to add v

Theorem. Upon termination, R is the connected component containing s.

BFS = explore in order of distance from s.

26
 Q2: Flood Fill

Flood fill. Given lime green pixel in an image, change color of entire
blob of neighboring lime pixels to blue.

recolor lime green blob to blue

27
 Flood Fill

Flood fill. Given lime green pixel in an image, change color of entire
blob of neighboring lime pixels to blue.

recolor lime green blob to blue

28
 Flood Fill

Flood fill. Given lime green pixel in an image, change color of entire
blob of neighboring lime pixels to blue.
Node: pixel.
Edge: two neighboring lime pixels.
Blob: connected component of lime pixels.
recolor lime green blob to blue

29
 Depth-first search

Use recursion

DFS intuition. Explore outward from s along one path as far as

possible, and backtrack when you cannot progress. Effect: find
faraway nodes.

DFS(u):
Mark u as Explored and add u to R
For each edge (u,v) incident to u
If v is not marked Explored then
Recursively call DFS(v)

30
 Depth-first search

Property. For a given recursive call DFS(u), all nodes marked

Explored between the beginning and end of this recursive call are
descendants of u in T.

Theorem. Let T be a depth-first search tree, let x and y be nodes in T,

and let (x,y) be an edge of G that is not an edge of T. Then one of x
or y is an ancestor of the other.

31
 Q3: BFS and DFS trees

We have a connected graph G = (V, E) and a specific vertex u. Suppose

we compute a DFS tree rooted at u, and obtain a tree T that
includes all nodes of G. Suppose we then compute a BFS tree rooted
at u, and obtain the same tree T.

Prove that G = T.

32
 Answer

Suppose G has an edge e = {a, b} that does not belong to T.

As T is a DFS tree, one of the two ends must be an ancestor of the

othersay a is an ancestor of b.

(*) Since T is a BFS tree, the distance of the two nodes from u in T can
differ at most by one.

But if a is an ancestor of b, and (*) holds, then a must be the direct

parent of b. This means that {a, b} is an edge in T. Contradiction.

33
 Q4: Finding a cycle

Given a graph G, determine if it has a cycle. If so, the algorithm should

output this cycle.

Answer: Assume that G is connected; otherwise work on the connected

components.

Run BFS from an arbitrary node s, and obtain a BFS tree T. If every
edge of G appears in the tree, then G = T and there is no cycle.

Otherwise, there is an edge e = (v, w) that is in G but not in T. Consider

the least common ancestor u of v and w in T. We get a cycle from
edge e and paths u-v and u-w in T.

34