Basic Immunology

Department of Medical Biology

Faculty of Medicine Diponegoro University
Diponegoro National Hospital
 Lymph Nodes

Figure 12.3

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.6b
 The Lymphatic System

Two parts
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphoid tissues and organs
Lymphatic system functions
Transport fluids back to the blood
Play essential roles in body defense and
resistance to disease
Absorb digested fat at the intestinal villi Slide 12.1
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 Lymphatic Characteristics
Lymph excess tissue fluid carried by
lymphatic vessels
Properties of lymphatic vessels
One way system toward the heart
No pump
Lymph moves toward the heart
Milking action of skeletal muscle
Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle
in vessel walls
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 Lymphatic Vessels

Figure 12.1

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 Lymphatic Vessels

Lymphatic
collecting vessels
Collects lymph
from lymph
capillaries
Carries lymph to
and away from
lymph nodes

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 Lymphatic Vessels

Lymphatic
collecting vessels
(continued)
Returns fluid to
circulatory veins
near the heart
Right lymphatic
duct
Thoracic duct
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 Lymph

Materials returned to the blood

Water
Blood cells
Proteins

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 Lymph

Harmful materials that enter lymph

vessels
Bacteria
Viruses
Cancer cells
Cell debris

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 Lymph Nodes

Filter lymph before it is returned to the

blood
Defense cells within lymph nodes
Macrophages engulf and destroy foreign
substances
Lymphocytes provide immune response to
antigens

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 Lymph Nodes

Figure 12.3

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 Lymph Node Structure

Figure 12.4

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 Other Lymphoid Organs

Several other
organs contribute
to lymphatic
function
Spleen
Thymus
Tonsils
Peyers patches
Figure 12.5
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.9
 The Spleen

Located on the left side of the abdomen

Filters blood
Destroys worn out blood cells
Forms blood cells in the fetus
Acts as a blood reservoir

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 The Thymus

Located low in the throat, overlying the

heart
Functions at peak levels only during
childhood
Produces hormones (like thymosin) to
program lymphocytes

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 Tonsils

Small masses of lymphoid tissue

around the pharynx
Trap and remove bacteria and other
foreign materials
Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with
bacteria

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 Peyers Patches

Found in the wall of the small intestine

Resemble tonsils in structure
Capture and destroy bacteria in the
intestine

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 Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic
Tissue (MALT)
Includes:
Peyers patches
Tonsils
Other small accumulations of lymphoid
tissue
Acts as a guard to protect respiratory
and digestive tracts
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 Body Defenses
The body is constantly in contact with
bacteria, fungi, and viruses (pathogens)
The body has two defense systems for
foreign materials
Nonspecific defense system
Mechanisms protect against a variety of
invaders
Responds immediately to protect body
from foreign materials
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 Body Defenses

Specific defense system

Specific defense is required for each type
of invader
Also known as the immune system

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 Nonspecific Body Defenses

Body surface coverings

Intact skin
Mucous membranes
Specialized human cells
Chemicals produced by the body

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 Surface Membrane Barriers
First Line of Defense

The skin
Physical barrier to foreign materials
pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial
growth
Sebum is toxic to bacteria
Vaginal secretions are very acidic

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 Surface Membrane Barriers
First Line of Defense
Stomach mucosa
Secretes hydrochloric acid
Has protein-digesting enzymes
Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain
lysozyme
Mucus traps microogranisms in
digestive and respiratory pathways
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 Defensive Cells

Phagocytes
(neutrophils and
macrophages)
Engulfs foreign
material into a
vacuole
Enzymes from
lysosomes digest
the material
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 Macrophage attacking e-coli.

 Defensive Cells

Natural killer cells

Can lyse and kill
cancer cells
Can destroy virus-
infected cells

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.6b Slide
 Inflammatory Response -
Second Line of Defense
Triggered when body tissues are injured
Produces four cardinal signs
Redness
Heat
Swelling
Pain
Results in a chain of events leading to
protection and healing
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 Functions of the Inflammatory
Response

Prevents spread of damaging agents

Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
Sets the stage for repair

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 Steps in the Inflammatory Response

Figure 12.7
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 Antimicrobial Chemicals

Complement
A group of at
least 20
plasma
proteins
Activated when
they encounter
and attach to
cells
(complement
fixation) Figure 12.8

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 Antimicrobial Chemicals
Complement
(continued)
Damage
foreign cell
surfaces
Will rupture or
lyse the foreign
cell membrane

Figure 12.8

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 Antimicrobial Chemicals

Interferon
Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells
Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses
binding

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Interferons are a family species-specific proteins synthesized by
eukaryotic cells in response to viruses and a variety of natural and
synthetic stimuli. There are several different interferons commonly used
as therapeutics, termed alpha, beta, and gamma. These peptides are
used to treat hairy cell leukemia, AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma,
laryngeal papillomatosis, genital warts, and chronic granulomatous
disease. Side effects include black tarry stools, blood in the urine,
confusion, and loss of balance.
 Fever
Abnormally high body temperature
Hypothalmus heat regulation can be
reset by pyrogens (secreted by white
blood cells)
High temperatures inhibit the release of
iron and zinc from liver and spleen
needed by bacteria
Fever also increases the speed of
tissue repair
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 Specific Defense: The Immune
System Third Line of Defense

Antigen specific recognizes and acts

against particular foreign substances
Systemic not restricted to the initial
infection site
Has memory recognizes and mounts
a stronger attack on previously
encountered pathogens
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 Types of Immunity

Humoral immunity
Antibody-mediated immunity
Cells produce chemicals for defense
Cellular immunity
Cell-mediated immunity
Cells target virus infected cells

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 Antigens (Nonself)
Any substance capable of exciting the
immune system and provoking an immune
response
Examples of common antigens
Foreign proteins
Nucleic acids
Large carbohydrates
Some lipids
Pollen grains
Microorganisms
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 Self-Antigens

Human cells have many surface

proteins
Our immune cells do not attack our own
proteins
Our cells in another persons body can
trigger an immune response because
they are foreign
Restricts donors for transplants
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 Allergies
Many small molecules (called haptens
or incomplete antigens) are not
antigenic, but link up with our own
proteins
The immune system may recognize and
respond to a protein-hapten
combination
The immune response is harmful rather
than protective because it attacks our
own cells
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 Cells of the Immune System
Lymphocytes
Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow
B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in
the bone marrow
T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in
the thymus
Macrophages
Arise from monocytes
Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
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 Activation of Lymphocytes

Figure 12.9
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 Humoral (Antibody-Mediated)
Immune Response

B lymphocytes with specific receptors

bind to a specific antigen
The binding event activates the
lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection
A large number of clones are produced
(primary humoral response)

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 Humoral (Antibody Mediated)
Immune Response

Most B cells become plasma cells

Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
Activity lasts for four or five days
Some B cells become long-lived memory
cells (secondary humoral response)

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 Humoral Immune Response

Figure 12.10
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 Active Immunity

Your B cells
encounter
antigens and
produce
antibodies
Active immunity
can be naturally
or artificially
acquired
Figure 12.12

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 Passive Immunity

Antibodies are obtained from someone

else
Conferred naturally from a mother to her
fetus
Conferred artificially from immune serum or
gamma globulin
Immunological memory does not occur
Protection provided by borrowed
antibodies
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 Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) (Igs)

Soluble proteins secreted by B cells

(plasma cells)
Carried in blood plasma
Capable of binding specifically to an
antigen

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 Antibody Classes
Antibodies of each class have slightly
different roles
Five major immunoglobulin classes
(Do Not Need to know!)
IgM can fix complement
IgA found mainly in mucus
IgD important in activation of B cell
IgG can cross the placental barrier
IgE involved in allergies
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 Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response
Antigens must be presented by
macrophages to an immunocompetent
T cell (antigen presentation)
T cells must recognize nonself and self
(double recognition)
After antigen binding, clones form as
with B cells, but different classes of cells
are produced
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 Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response

Figure 12.15

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 T Cell Clones

Cytotoxic T cells
Specialize in killing infected cells
Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)
Helper T cells
Recruit other cells to fight the invaders
Interact directly with B cells

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 T Cell Clones

Suppressor T cells
Release chemicals to suppress the activity
of T and B cells
Stop the immune response to prevent
uncontrolled activity
A few members of each clone are
memory cells

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 Summary of the Immune Response

Figure 12.16
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 Organ Transplants and Rejection
Major types of grafts
Autografts tissue transplanted from one
site to another on the same person
Isografts tissue grafts from an identical
person (identical twin)
Allografts tissue taken from an unrelated
person
Xenografts tissue taken from a different
animal species
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 Organ Transplants and Rejection

Autografts and isografts are ideal

donors
Xenografts are never successful
Allografts are more successful with a
closer tissue match

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 Disorders of Immunity:
Immunodeficiencies

Production or function of immune cells

or complement is abnormal
May be congenital or acquired
Includes AIDS Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome

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 Disorders of Immunity:
Autoimmune Diseases

The immune system does not

distinguish between self and nonself
The body produces antibodies and
sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its
own tissues

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 Disorders of Immunity:
Autoimmune Diseases
Examples of autoimmune diseases
Multiple sclerosis white matter of brain
and spinal cord are destroyed
Myasthenia gravis impairs
communication between nerves and
skeletal muscles
Juvenile diabetes destroys pancreatic
beta cells that produce insulin
Rheumatoid arthritis destroys joints
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 Disorders of Immunity:
Autoimmune Diseases

Examples of autoimmune diseases

(continued)
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
affects kidney, heart, lung and skin
Glomerulonephritis impairment of renal
function

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 Immune Deficiency: AIDS

HIV targets cells

Retrovirus attaches to CD4 receptors of
T helper cells
Transmission: Body fluids, i.e., blood, semen,
breast milk, vaginal secretions
The Structure of HIV

Figure 9.19
Time Course of the Progression of
AIDS after HIV Infection

Figure 9.21
 AIDS progression:
Phase I: few weeks to a few years; flu like symptoms, swollen
lymph nodes, chills, fever, fatigue, body aches. Virus is
multiplying, antibodies are made but ineffective for complete
virus removal
Phase II: within six months to 10 years; opportunistic
infections present, Helper T cells affected, 5% may not
progress to next phase
Phase III: Helper T cells fall below 200 per cubic millimeter
of blood AND the person has an opportunistic infection or type
of cancer. Person is now termed as having AIDS May
include pneumonia, meningitis, tuberculosis, encephalitis,
Kaposis sarcoma, and non-Hodgkins lumphoma.
 AIDS Pandemic

More than 36 million infected with HIV

worldwide
Most infections in sub-Sahara of Africa
Increasing spread in Asia and India
Most often spread by heterosexual contact
outside U.S.