Distortion Control in

fabrication
CASE Studies
 Significance

Distortion or residual shape change

deformations and stress occur when welding
is employed

These imperfections adversely affect

further assembly and machining while
manufacturing and
structural integrity of the weldment during
service
 Significance

Designers are often constrained to design the

structure free from distortion
Distortion control is often left to the wisdom
of shop floor Engineers
Often well known and documented methods
like pre-setting and fixturing become less cost
effective and not feasible for large structures
 Significance

FEM based Prediction methods are rigorous

and more accurate but have limitations for
application to complex weldments containing
several welds
The analytical models are less accurate but
simple and can be applied for complex
structures
There exists a need to develop simple shop
floor methods to control distortion in complex
welded structures containing several welds
 Distortion definition

Distortion is residual shape change

deformations that occur during welding
It is an after - effect of welding
It remains permanent in the component till the
equilibrium is disturbed

Distortion is to be controlled within limits to

minimize matching / assembly problems & to
improve buckling strength
How Distortion Occurs
. When a process generates thermal
gradients resulting in strains,
due to non-uniform expansion or
contraction that
exceed the local yield point of the
material
 During the rapid heating cycle of a
fusion welding process,
material in the vicinity of the weld heats,
expands in all directions and
is compressed by the constraints of the
much larger and cooler surrounding
structure.
 The heated volume has a lower yield
point than the cooler surrounding
structure and is
more readily upset to a smaller
dimension,
i.e. the heated volume yields in
compression.
 On cooling,
the weld deposit & the heated volume of
the adjacent parent material contracts in
all directions,
creating tensile strains that are
constrained by the attached cool
structures that
did not reach a yield point strain during
the entire heating and cooling process.
 This localized contraction results
in buckling,
localized tensile yielding, or
development of residual stress

On thinner members localized buckling

will occur
On thicker members less localized
distortion is evident, however residual
stresses tend to be higher.
 Distortion development Process

Localized application of heat causes plastic

deformations in the base metal regions near
the weld during welding
As a result Permanent shortening or thermal
shrinkages occur in these regions
During cooling, the base metal or the weldment
reacts changing its shape to maintain mechanical
equilibrium during cooling
 Residual stress &
Distortion

Temp distbn Res. Stress distbn

The Main Types of Distortion

On heating and cooling metals expand and

contract according to their expansion
coefficient
with expansion and contraction occurring in
all three principal axes.
Usually expansion in the through thickness
direction is unconstrained,
but there is constraint in the transverse and
longitudinal directions
Distortion can be categorized into
six main types
1. . Longitudinal shrinkage
Shrinkage stresses leading to a
shortening of the member along the
principal axis
Longitudinal Shrinkage along the
length of weld
Longitudinal distortion Types of distortion

d
 Transverse Shrinkage

Shrinkage stresses leading to a shortening of

the member across the toes of the welded
joint
Transverse shrinkage across the length
of weld

 Types of distortion

Transverse distortion

N A
Angular distortion

Weld zone transverse shrinkage

stresses not in the plane of the neutral
axis leading to rotation of one member
with respect to an adjacent member.
 Types of distortion

Angular distortion
Bowing and dishing

Shrinkage of edges or surfaces where

the distortion is not coincident with the
neutral axis of the member leading to
bowing or dishing due to asymmetric
shortening
Buckling

Similarto bowing and dishing but more

pronounced localised deformations as
seen on larger structures or thinner or
less restrained sections.
 Types of distortion

Buckling distortion
 Distortion

Shrinkage during welding

 Distortion

Shrinkage during welding

 Distortion

Shrinkage during welding

Residual stress

+
- -
Factors Affecting Distortion
Ifa metal component was
uniformly heated and cooled there
would be uniform tri-axial expansion
during heating followed by
uniform tri-axial contraction during
cooling and
no thermal distortion evident upon
return to ambient temperature.
Factors Affecting Distortion
Ifthe same heating and cooling cycle
were repeated on a component that
contained residual stress or
was subject to significant externally
applied forces (or constraints to thermal
expansion or contraction),
there would be distortion evident.
The main factors influencing the type and
degree of distortion

1.Parent material properties

1.1Thermal expansion coefficient
This is the amount of expansion (or
contraction) in a material as it is heated
(or cooled).
 Carbon steel expands less than
stainless steel which expands less than
aluminium
Carbon steel expands < stainless steel
expands <aluminium
 Lower thermal expansion lower
distortion

Higher thermal expansion higher

distortion
Specific heat per unit volume

Specific heat, c, is the amount of energy

required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of the substance by one kelvin
and is expressed as expressed as joule
per kilogram Kelvin.
Lower specific heat lower distortion
Higher specific heat higher distortion
Thermal conductivity coefficient

The coefficient of thermal conductivity,

is a measure of the rate at which heat
flows through a material.
Level of restraint

Highly stiffened (restrained) structures

offer better resistance to distortion
during welding. This in turn leads to
higher residual stresses and requires
the weld zone to yield during the
heating and cooling of
a weld cycle, placing a higher demand
on weld metal and HAZ properties.

 High restraint lower distortion,

High restraint higher residual stress

Low restraint higher distortion,

Low restraint Lower residual stress
 Joint design

Joint design has a significant bearing on distortion.

Shrinkage is directly proportional to weld metal
volume so welds should be kept as small as
practical.
Wherever practical symmetrical joint designs
should be used.
Balancing of shrinkage forces is important in
minimizing angular distortion.

Joint design
Locate weld near NA
 Minimal weld volume and symmetrical
shrinkage forces lower distortion
Larger weld volume and asymmetrical
shrinkage forces higher distortion
Minimize weld joints
 Component fit-up

Good fit-up of components reduces the

potential for movement as
gaps close during welding and also
minimizes weld volumes.
Precise fit-up lower distortion
Poor fit-up higher distortion
Welding procedure

5.5.1. Heat input

Lower heat input lower distortion
Higher heat input higher distortion
 Welding sequence

Balanced welding sequence lower

distortion

Unbalanced welding sequence higher

distortion
Preheat temperature

Higher preheat lower distortion

Lower preheat higher distortion
 Eliminating re-work

Re-work introduces additional thermal

cycles in both removal and replacing
defective welding.
Additional welding to rectify undersize welds
can significantly increase distortion so it is
vital to get weld sizes correct first time.
 Preventing Distortion By Good
Design
Good design incorporates principles that
reduce the detrimental effects of weld zone
shrinkage and underpins good workshop
practices
Design principles
Eliminationof Welding
Weld Placement
Reducing Volume of Weld Metal
Reducing the Number of Weld Runs
Use of Balanced Welding
 Elimination of Welding
Welding can often be eliminated by:
Utilizing plates and profiles in the largest sizes
available thus reducing the frequency of joining.

Forming plates rather than cutting and welding.

Using rolled or extruded sections rather than

welded sections.
Using stiffeners, thus allowing reductions in weld
sizes
Use rolled sections
 Weld Placement

The location of welds

as close as possible to neutral axes is
important in minimizing distortion.
closer a weld is to the neutral axis of a
member, the lower the leverage effect of
the shrinkage forces
and hence the final distortion.
Reducing Volume of Weld Metal

weldshrinkage is proportional to the

volume of weld metal
smaller the total volume of weld metal
deposited the smaller will be the overall
contraction during cooling and hence
reduced distortion.
Reducing Volume of Weld Metal
Details of weld preparations and welding process
selection should aim for the minimum weld
volume consistent with satisfying the design
strength and weld quality requirements.
A large fillet weld may be replaced by an
incomplete penetration groove weld and smaller
fillet to achieve the same effective throat thickness
with a significant reduction in weld volume.
Increased cost in preparation of the bevel has to
be considered.
Reducing Volume of Weld Metal

A double V plate butt weld has

approximately half of the weld volume of a
single sided V plate butt weld..
weld sizes are not greater than necessary.
Reducing the Number of Weld Runs

Where possible use intermittent rather than

continuous welds.
Stagger intermittent fillet welds.
Use of Balanced Welding
Wherever practicable, and particularly
on thicker sections, use double side
joints and a balanced welding
sequence.
This approach can be applied where
components are small and rotation is
practical.
Preventing Distortion by Fabrication Techniques
Precision in Weld Preparation
Precision in Assembly
Tack welding
Back-To-Back Assembly
Stiffening
Pre-setting
Jigs and Fixtures
Welding
Precision in Weld Preparation
Preparation of bevels for plate butt
welds is now commonly by machining.
This is particularly important for larger
welds such as main plate butt welds
where major gains can be made in
controlling overall distortion.
 Precision in Assembly
Precision in assembly is dependent
on accuracy of design,
accuracy of cut parts,
accuracy of marked assembly lines and
skills of the people doing the assembly.
 Tack welding
Tack welding plays a critical role in firstly
holding the assembled structure together
ready for welding and
secondly in maintaining correct root gaps
in butt welds and preventing movement in
the structure as welding progresses.
 The number of tack welds,
the length tack welds and the
distance between them will depend on
the length and thickness of the weld,
the degree of rigidity needed
The tacking sequence can also have to
be controlled to ensure correct root
gaps are maintained along the length of
a joint.
 Stiffening
. Longitudinal stiffeners welded along each
side of a long seam can be used to prevent
bowing of long members.
Stiffener location is important. If stiffeners
are too far from the joint they are stiffening
they may be ineffective, whereas if stiffeners
are too close they may interfere with welding
of the joint.
Pre-setting

presetting the joint by the amount of

angular distortion expected ensures the
alignment of the finished weld.
Jigs and Fixtures
Jigs and fixtures can be used for
assembly and welding of subassemblies
where the components are held rigidly
until welded
Preventing Distortion by Fabrication
Techniques
Welding
Welding Process
Controlled Welding Procedures
Welding Technique
Welding Process

Higherenergy processes that allow

higher welding speeds generally lead to
lowering of shrinkage and distortion
rates
 Controlled Welding Procedures
Ensuring all operators are following welding
procedures ensures that weld metal shrinkage is
consistent.
Welding procedures should be developed to
ensure that minimal weld metal is deposited while
maintaining the specified weld quality level.
When carrying out the fabrication it is important
that the weld sizes are produced within the
specified size range and weld shape is correct.

Controlled Welding Procedures

Over-welding of thin structural sections
is common although there is no
advantage to the fabricator or customer
in over-welding.
On the other hand, undersize welds can
lead to costly re-work with inevitable
increased distortion.
Welding Technique
General rules for minimizing distortion
are:
Keep weld volumes/size to the
minimum specified
Balance welds about neutral axes
Keep the time between runs to a
minimum
Maintain preheat temperatures
 Welding Sequence
The direction and sequence of welding is
important in distortion control. Generally welds
are made in the direction of free ends.
For longer welds, back-step welding or skip
welding is used.
For back-step welding short weld lengths are
placed with welding in the opposite direction to
the general progression.
For skip welding a sequence is worked out to
minimise and balance out shrinkage stresses.
Correcting Distortion
 Distortion Prevention Methods
Minimizing weld joints
Minimizing weld sizes
Rigidity based design for selection of thickness &
section geometry
Minimizing un-supported lengths in stiffener
design
Selection of appropriate edge preparation or joint
design
Use of intermittent welding
Optimum location of welds
Providing appropriate shrinkage allowances
 Distortion Control Methods

Minimizing root gaps & misalignment

Using Jigs & Fixtures to restrain the assembly
Proper tacking of the parts
Elastic and Plastic presetting
Back to back welding with clamping
Preheating
Minimizing heat input rate & no.of passes
Using Weld and welding sequence
Heat sink welding
 Distortion Correction Methods

Thermal correction
Oxy-acetylene flame correction
Thermal stress relieving (PWHT)
Mechanical correction methods
Vibration stress reliving
Pressing / Hammering
Combination of the above methods
 Distortion control methods

Minimize weld joints

Locate weld near NA

Use rolled sections

Select the right Edge

Optimize design Preparation
 Distortion control methods h1
h2

Strong back
10 Selection
of
Free appropriate
Edge
Distortion

h1: h2 - 7:3 preparation

5
h1: h2 - 6:4

h1: h2 - 1:1
h1: h2 - 4:6

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Plate thickness in inches
 Distortion control methods Minimize Excess Welding by

Reducing the Root gap during fit up

Right gap Excessive gap Buttering / buildup

Minimize Reinforcement Optimization of fillet size

Normal Higher fillet

size
Increases
distortion
Excessive
Distortion Control Methods

Control during welding

Minimizing root gaps and misalignment

Elastic / Plastic presetting
Use of Jigs and Fixtures for clamping
Use of appropriate assembly Procedure
Back to back welding
Back step welding
Use appropriate welding Procedures
Heat sink Welding
Sequencing
 Distortion control methods 11
10 Minimize
9 number of
8
7 passes
1 2 3 4 6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Back Step Welding Weld Pass

8 7 4 8
6 5 7 3

4 3 2 6
2 1 5 1
Intermittent Welding
Positioning welds
Distortion control methods

Elastic
Presetting

Back to Back Welding

Back to Back with presetting

 Distortion Correction Methods

Thermal Correction
Thermal Stress Relieving
Flame Correction
Mechanical correction
Hammering
Pressing
Combination of the methods
Sequencing Techniques

Weld Sequencing
The order of welding
Weld Layer sequencing
The order in which the different layers
are deposited
Welding Sequence
The direction of welding
Combination of the above
 WELDING SEQUENCE
WELD SEQUENCE

WELDING SEQUENCE

LAYER SEQUENCE
Layer SEQUENCE
COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE

4 1
C A

D B
2 3

WELD SEQUENCE WELDING SEQUENCE

 Weld Sequencing

2 1
3 10

4 1 4 9

2 3 5 8

6 7
Combinations = ! 4 = 24
Combinations = !10
=3,628,800
Factors to be considered for
determining optimum weld
sequence Geometry related
parameters
SYMMETRY OF THE SECTION
POSITION OF WELD RELATIVE TO NA
RIGIDITY OF THE SECTION
EXTENT OF TACK WELDS OR RESTRAINT LEVEL
TEMPORARY STIFFENERS & CLAMPS
LEVEL OF INTERNAL & EXTERNAL
CONSTRAINTS
ORENTATION OF THE JOB DURING WELDING
Factors to be considered for
determining optimum weld
sequence Heat input related
parameters

WELDING PROCESS EMPLOYED

WELD SIZE
SPEED OF WELDING
NO. OF WELDERS EMPLOYED FOR WELDING
WELDING POSITION
ROT GAP IN THE JOINT AND CONSEQEUENCIAL
INCREASE IN WELD METAL DEPOSIT
Factors to be considered for
determining optimum weld
Initial strain related
sequence
parameters

INITIAL STRAIN CAUSED DURING PREPARATION

OF ASSEMBLY
INITIAL STRAIN CASUED BY PRESETTING
/PREBENDING
PRESENCE OF INITIAL STRAIN CAUSED BY
PREVIOUS WELDS
DEFORMATION TENDENCY OF THE WELDMENT
TYPE OF FABRICATION PROCEDURE EMPLOYED
 Optimum Weld Sequence

Amongst the possible combinations NOT ALL are

practically possible and there could be a sequence
that would yield minimum distortion

The best sequence that is associated with least

distortion may not be cost effective and may need
higher cycle time

The Optimum Sequence is associated with minimum

achievable level of distortion along both axes of the
component that is practically applicable in the shop
floor.
 Weld sequencing
Heat Input related Parameters
Welding Process & Parameters
Weld Size
Welding Position
No. of welders employed
Root gap in the joint
Geometry related Parameters
Symmetry of the section
Position of weld from NA
Section Modulus
Extent of tack welds
Extent of clamping
 Weld sequencing

Initial strain & Stress related Parameters

Initial strain caused during assembly or fit up

Strains caused by pre-setting / pre-bending
Strains caused by previous weld (s)
Type of fabrication procedure employed
Residual stress analysis
Typical patterns of Residual Stress distributions
observed in different steels

Carbon Steels Low alloy steels High alloy steels

Thank You
Blind Hole drilling method
of measuring residual
stress in metallic
materials
 Configuration of rectangular Rosette strain Gauge for
residual stress measurement
c
b

Dia 1.6 mm
hole

a
Orientation of the strain gauge with respect to welded Plate

c
45

d a
0

b
90
Hole drilling gauge installed on the austenitic
stainless steel weld zone
 Incremental Blind Hole drilling
d
Z

100

80
% Strain Relaxed

60

40

20
Z/d ratio
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
View of the drilled
Hole & the
Gauge after hole
Drilling

1.6 mm dia hole is

Drilled to a depth of 1.9 mm
In small incremental
depths
Bending Fatigue test fixture and specimen of Bogie
frame joints
X-ray diffraction method
of measuring residual
stress in metallic
materials
 PRINCIPLE OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION

- Wave length of
the X-ray beam

n = 2 d. SIN
 Profile of the Diffracted beam

d {hkl}

DEFORMED STATE

d {hkl} is the lattice spacing for a given set of planes with

particular crystal structure
 EFFECT OF STRESS ON LATTICE
SPACING

Normal to diffracting Plane Normal to diffracting Plane

Incident Beam Diffracted Beam

Incident Beam Diffracted Beam

o o
do

d

UNDEFORMED STATE DEFORMED

STATE

do Lattice spacing under stress d Lattice spacing under

free state stressed state
 EFFECT OF MICRO & MICRO STRESS

INTENSITY
d

DEFORMED STATE

Peak Shift due to

Macro Stress

DIFFRACTION ANGLE 2
 Residual
stress in shot
peened
Injector Lever