SYSTEM

ENGINEERING
 Objectives
2

 System concepts: Model, Types and Classes

 System Control and its use in MIS
 Handling of System Complexity
 Post Implementation System Problems
 Entropy, Negative Entropy
 Audit Trail Application
 Need for Systems Analysis
 Systems Analysis Design
 Integrated MIS
 System Development Models
 System Concepts
3

 System is defined as a set of elements arranged in

an orderly manner to accomplish an objective
 System is not a randomly arranged set
 It is arranged with some logic governed by rules,
regulations, principles and policies
 A clear statement of objectives brings a precision
and an order into the selection of elements and
their arrangement in the system
 Any disorder would create a disturbance in the
system
 Parts of a System
4

Control
Control of
of System
System Performance
Performance

Input
Input of
of Output
Output of
of
Processing
Processing
Data
Data Information
Information
Data
Data
Resources
Resources Products
Products

Storage
Storage of
of Data
Data Resources
Resources
 Business as a System
5

 A business is an organizational
system where economic resources
(input) are transformed by various
organization processes
(processing) into goods and
services (output).

Information systems provide

information (feedback) on the
operations of the system to
management for the direction and
maintenance of the system
(control), as it exchanges inputs
and outputs with its environment.
 Contd.,
6

 A system may have single input and multiple outputs or

several inputs and multiple objectives
 The choice of inputs and processing methodology is
governed by the objectives set for the system
 All the systems operate in an environment
 The environment may influence the system in its design
and performance
 The understanding of boundaries of the system is
essential to bring a clarity in explaining the system
components and their arrangement.
 Generalized Model of a
7
System

ENVIRONMENT

Proce Outp
Input
ss ut

Filter
 Contd.,
8

 The environment influences the choice

of inputs, the method of processing, and
the nature and the contents of the
outputs
 Most of the failures of the systems lie in
the area of selection of the inputs and
the processes, and not providing
appropriate filtering systems.
 Systems Control
9

 The achievement of the objectives through

system control becomes the integral part of
the system design
 The control calls for a measurement of the
output in some terms
 The device that measures the output is
called a sensor
 The next step is to set the standard or
norm of the output as an index of the
system performance.
 Contd.,
10

 The sensor measures the output and

compares it with the standard
 If the measured output compares well with
the standard, the system provides a feedback
to the system to stop the operations
 The process of comparison of a measured
output with the standard is done by a unit
called comparison unit
 The mechanism, which provides a signal to
the system, about the quality of performance,
favorable or adverse, is called a feedback
mechanism.
 Contd.,
11

 It is necessary to provide an in-built mechanism

which will decide, based on the feedback to stop,
regulate or continue the system operations, called
corrective unit
 The corrective unit, in its performance, will act on
inputs and processes to bring the system under
control
 The process of measuring the output, comparing
with the standard, sending the signal to the
corrective unit and the corrective unit acting upon
it, is called a control.
 System Concepts
12

Environment

Feedback Feedback
Signals Signals
Control Control by Control
Signals Management Signals

Input of Manufacturing Output of

Raw Materials Process Finished Products

System Boundary
Other Systems
 Control
13

 The role of control is to regulate the system

operations and performance, and keep it in
an equilibrium condition. It is the heart and
brain of the system
 The control could either be internal or
external to the system
 The concept of a control system model is
applied to data processing where all the
features are used in the programs of the data
processing.
 Control System Model
14

Input Process Output

Sensor

Correctiv Channels of Feedback Comparis

e Unit on Unit

Standard
 Control System Model for
15
Data Processing
Use of
Computed
Input Data Program for
Result
Processing
Change
the Summary of
Program Results
if
necessar
Compared
Decision y
Results vs.
Control Feedback – Positive or Target
negative
Target
Results
 MIS Model of Quality
16
Assurance
Weight,
Raw Manufactur
Size, Color,
Material ing Process
Qty
Data on Designated
Analysis of
Measures of measures of
quality data
quality quality
Action to
correct the Weight
process of One
manufacturi measure of
Quality ng quality
Assurance Weight
Manager control
Corrective chart
Tools to
unit Feedback through compare
plotting of weights
Upper &
lower limits
Quality
control limits
 MIS and Support to
17
Business
System Business System MIS
Components

Inputs Raw materials, plant and Data from transactions of purchase,

machinery, production and sales, receipts & payments
manufacturing, selling,
accounting
Process Purchasing, Transaction processing and data processing
manufacturing, selling,
accounting
Outputs Quantity of production, Computation of production in numbers,
sales, stock, income and sales in value, stocks in weight, income and
profit profit in rupees
Sensor Profit Income less assigned cost
Comparison Expectation of profit vs. Algebraic comparison module to compare
unit actual profit income vs. budgeted income profit vs.
budgeted profit
Standard Profit, Target Budgeted profits of various products
Feedback Balance Sheet and Exception reports after analysis showing
 Types of System
18

 A system is defined and determined by

its boundaries and objectives
 In a serial subsystem processing, the
entire output of a subsystem is the input
to the next subsystem and so on
 In the matrix arrangement the different
outputs go to different sub-systems
 A subsystem receives more than one
input from other subsystems.
 Subsystems in Serial Order
19
 Subsystems Operating in Matrix
20
Order
 Contd.,
21

 Black Box System: If the process of input

transformation is not visible and
understandable then it is a black box system
 Deterministic: A system is called deterministic
when the inputs, the process and the outputs
are known with certainty. Example: Accounting
system
 Probabilistic: When the output can only be
predicted in probabilistic terms. Example:
Demand forecast
 Contd.,
22

 Closed system: If a system is functioning in

isolation from the environment, then the
system does not have any exchange with the
environment nor it is influenced by the
environmental changes. Example: Accounting
systems like cash books, stocks, etc.
 Open system: If the system has exchange
with environment and is influenced by the
environment then it is called open system
 Handling System
23
Complexity
 Factorization: The process of putting the
subsystems in the hierarchical order to
provide a structural view showing the
development path to the designer
 Simplification: The process of clustering the
subsystems together
 Handling all the subsystems together with
their interconnections is difficult
 Each interconnection acts as a channel for
the input-output communication.
 Method of Simplification
24

1. Identify the subsystems which have to

be together for the functional
‘cohesion’
2. Form a cluster of these subsystems and
identify interconnections in this cluster
3. Form clusters of the remaining
subsystems
4. Connect the clusters with an interface
 Materials Management
25
System
 The materials management can be
subdivided as follows as shown in Step 1:
A. Procurement System
B. Purchase order follow up system
C. Receipts accounting system
D. Material requirement planning system
E. Materials issue requisition system
F. Bill passing and payment system
G. Inventory control system.
 Subsystems with
26
Interconnections
 Step 2: MM is divided in seven systems from A to G and their
interconnections are identified as follows:

A C D F

B E G
 Formation on Clusters
27
 The subsystems can be clustered in number of
ways
 In the following figure it is clustered based on the
managerial function such as purchase,
accounting and planning

A C D

F E G
Cluster-1 Cluster-2 Cluster-3
Purchase Stock Materials
Function Accounting Planning &
 Contd.,
28

 Clustering the subsystems by operating departments

– A, B, C and E will be a cluster, F will the second
cluster and D and G will be the third cluster
 When the subsystems are clustered together and
connected, the designer faces the problem of tight
connectivity
 The solution is to decouple the clusters from each
other by providing interface between the clusters
 The process of decoupling makes the two clusters
operationally independent of each other.
 Decoupling of Subsystems
29

 The interface provides an operational

independence by allowing the other
subsystem to operate on the limited
information already stored

A Purchas C Stock D
e Informat
Informat ion
B ion

Interface Interface
F E G
 Contd.,
30

 The benefits of the operational

independence are not without the extra
cost of providing an interface because as
a subsystem, the interface also needs to
be designed, keeping in view the specific
needs of the interfaced subsystems
 The use of decoupling mechanism should
be considered as the last alternative for
reducing the rigid requirements of a
communication exchange.
 System Efficiency and
31
Effectiveness
 Efficiency indicates the manner in which the inputs are used
by the system, i.e., the system uses inputs in a right way
 If the input-output ratio is adverse, we say that the system is
inefficient though it produces desired output
 Effectiveness is the measure for deciding whether the
system provides the desired output or not, i.e., producing the
right output in terms of quantity & quality
 Effectiveness is a measure of the goodness of the output and
efficiency is a measure of the productivity.
 Post Implementation Problems in
32
a System
 When systems are allowed to run for some
time, they tend to become disorganized,
resulting into system inefficiency
 The process of decay and its cause is called
entropy
 Negative entropy: Course of action to arrest
the decay
 The process of providing negative entropy
is called system maintenance.
 Steps of Negative Entropy
33

a) A periodical review of the system

b) User meetings to assess the current
utility of the system and the level of
satisfaction
c) Subjecting the system to an audit check
through the test data
d) Running the system under audit trail
e) Bringing out system modifications.
 Examples of Negative
34
Entropy
System Indications of Negative entropy
entropy
Human Loss of weight, Medical check-up and
body headache prescribed diet and
medicines
Computer System halts, read Preventive maintenance
and write errors and replacement of
sensitive components

Data Errors and Review and introduction

Processin omissions in the of the streamlined
g data on increase procedure
InformatioDecline in the utility Resetting the goals of
 Problems of System Decay
35

 Business environmental changes – modification to business

goals and objectives
 Information needs of the managers changes
 Changes may call for more hardware and software
 Additional application programs need to be written
 The efficiency of the information system is high if these
changes are easily accommodated in a short time.
 Contd.,
36

 The keys to handle the post

implementation problems are:
a) The core system design must be
comprehensive and flexible to undergo a
quick change
b) The associated peripheral systems should
be built with a flexible design
 Classes of Systems
37

 Data Processing System (DPS)

 Transaction Processing System (TPS)
 Application Processing System (APS)
 Business Function Processing System (BPS)
 Integrated Information Processing System
(IPS)
 Data Processing System
38

 DPS is designed to capture, collect or enter

the data to process in a certain specified
manner to achieve the following:
 Data is complete, correct and valid from all
aspects
 Next, Data will be processed and organized

 DPS may have an algorithm using one or more

inputs and may produce one or more outputs
 Model of DPS
39

System of System of System of

capture, scrutiny, results Reports
collect, checking, processin
enter validating g

Results Query
Master Displa processin
record
Files y g
file(s)
 Transaction Processing
40
System
 TPS is designed to handle a transaction
between parties
 The parties could be two or more and have a
designated role in TPS
 TPS uses data files, master files, transaction
records and processes the data
 TPS output is a transaction in itself and
updating the various other records
 Model of TPS
41

Transaction
Transacti Processing
on Data systems for
accuracy, Report
files or
completeness,
consistency, Docume
validity and nt
Master decision for
File(s) acceptance or Displa
rejection y

Transacti Processe
on d Query
transacti processin Output
Process
algorithm on file(s) g
and
Records
 Application Processing
42
System
 APS is built over DPSs and TPSs
 APS uses files created by DPS and TPSs, and
applies application-processing rules to execute
the application
 APS may have an output as a document, a report
or a set of rules required for processing
 Example: In a Billing system, the following output
files are used
 Customer order acknowledgement
 Product delivery to customer

 Delivery acknowledgement and acceptance by the

customer
 Model of APS
43

Processe Application
d Processing
Transacti systems for Report
on files verification, or
checking, Docume
selecting rules, nt
computing
Master formulae and
File(s) formatting Displa
y

Applicati Applicati
on Query
on output Output
Processin processin
file(s)
g rules g
and
Records
 Business Function
44
Processing System
 BPS deals with business functions
 BPS aids in business function processing and helps
management in decision-making
 BPS focuses more through information support for
management of business function
 It brings out more MIS reports for business function
management such as Sales, production, materials..
 Business function is built on several business process
applications
 Business system uses relevant APS and TPS outputs
for processing the system results.
 Model of BPS
45

Applicati
on
process
system System
processing after Future
output MIS
files checking file
consistency, Reports
Transacti validity
on output
File(s) Displa
y

System Summary
Query
Processin System of
processin
g rules Result Results
g
file(s) file for
DSS
 Integrated Information
46
Processing System
 IPS is an integrated information processing system for
producing information supporting top management’s
decision-making
 IPS sits on the top of the rest of the systems
 IPS draws its input from these systems, and applies
information processing rules to bring out an output
 IPS meets requirement in the area of planning, budgeting
and strategic control
 Example: Project planning, Capital budgeting,
manufacturing planning, preparing year-end balance
sheet schedules and reports.
 Model of IPS
47

Function Knowledg
TPS APS Database e
Output Output s and database
files files Metadata s

IP rules
Models
Reports Algorithms Results
Use of
information Databas
Process tools e

Spread Executive Data Data Knowledge

sheet Informatio Warehousi Mining Process
Applicatio n System ng System System System
n (SSA) (EIS) (DWH) (DMS) (KPS)
 General Model of MIS
48

 MIS is an arrangement of data processing and

information systems in an orderly manner to support
the management in achieving the business objectives
 MIS performs on the principle of feedback and control
by exception
 MIS is designed to provide the information which is
exceptional in nature from the point of view of business
 MIS is an open system interfacing continuously with the
internal and the external environment.
 Contd.,
49

 MIS is a hierarchical structure, subdivided

into smaller subsystems
 The complexity of the MIS is handled by
simplifying the subsystem structure
decoupling the two subsystem clusters
 A good MIS is founded on the in-depth
system analysis of the business and
management processes
 The elements of the MIS are the computer
hardware, the communication channels, the
software and the software tools, the
development plan and a well-defined
measurable objective.
 General Model of MIS
50

SOURCING PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

DATA PROCESSING QUERY PROCESSING

PROC
TRANSACTION
ESSIN EXCEPTION REPORTING
PROCESSING G
APPLICATION DATABASE, KNOWLEDGE
PROCESSING BASE
MIS
DECISION SUPPORT
SYSTEMS PROCESSING MODE
L SYSTEMS
OPERATION RESEARCH
INTEGRATION OF
AND APPLICATION
SYSTEMS
PACKAGES
EXPERT AND ARTIFICIAL
BIS, DWH, DMS, SPAs
INTELLIGENCE SYSTEM
 The Need for System
51
Analysis
 System Objective
 System Boundaries – Define the scope
and coverage of the system
 System Importance
 Nature of the System – closed, open,
deterministic, probabilistic
 Role of the system as an interface
 Participation of users
 Understanding of resource needs
 Assessment of feasibility.
 Steps in System Analysis &
52
Design
 Contd.,
53
Steps Elaboration Explanation
Conceptual Determine the inputs, process Conceptualization is necessary to
system design and outputs, and design a understand the system process
conceptual mode
Detailing the Draw the document flowcharts Helps in bringing a clarity in the
system design and the DFD, the data and dataflow. The responsibility centers
system hierarchy diagrams, the and the process centers are
data and information vs. its users identified.
mapping table
Structuring Break the system into its Helps in understanding the
the system hierarchical structure dataflow from one level to the
design other and the processes carried out
at each level
Conceptual Define step by step the usage of Helps to put down the data
model of files, processes and interface. processing flow in the
computer Define the data structures and computerized system. Draw the
system draw DFDs computer system charts.
Break the Make a physical conversion of Modules will be data entry, data
system in the system into the program validation, data processing,
 Contd.,
54

Steps Elaboration Explanation

Develop the Test the modules and the Confirms whether the system
test data test integrity of the system in terms design is satisfactory. Suggest the
cases for of input vs. output. Plan white modifications.
checking the box and black box testing.
system ability

Install the Install on the hardware Install, test and run the system
system before the user is exposed in a live
mode.
Implementatio Train the personnel. Run the Helps to identify the user problems
n system in parallel. Prepare a and provide solutions
system manual.
Review the Review the system through audit Helps to maintain the system
maintenance trail and test data, use change quality and the quality of
management system for information through modifications,
modifications. if necessary.
 System Analysis of the
55
Existing System
 Analysis helps in achieving the following:
 Understanding the existing system
 Understanding the objectives achieved by the
existing system
 Evaluating the system for computerization and
its placement in the total MIS design
 Knowing whether the system is feasible
technically and operationally
 Are the information fully justified?

 If so, is the cost of the system design justified

to increase the value of information?
 Procedure of Analyzing the
56
Existing System
1. Carry out the analysis of the system at a
place where the system is functioning
2. Note down the key personnel in the
system besides the HOD
3. Spend some time with the operating
personnel and observe the system to
understand the finer details of the system
4. Define the scope of the system and its
objective
5. Collect all the documents which are raised
in the system.
 Contd.,
57

6. Collect separately the outputs which as statements,

reports, memos, etc
7. Make a list of rules, formulae, guidelines, policies..
8. Note down the check points and the controls used in
the system to ensure that dataflow is complete
9. Study the flow of data in the system in units, summary
and aggregates from document to document from one
stage to another
10. Make a small system note as a base document and
discuss with respective HOD.
 Contd.,
58

11. Examine whether the achievement of the

system’s objectives is feasible in the
present system
12. If there are problems in the feasibility of
implementation, then examine whether
the present system can be modified
13. Draw a revised system flowchart to
indicate how the system runs the major
steps of processing the information
14. Discuss the flowchart with the personnel
operating the system
 Contd.,
59

15. Make a list of the outputs containing

information
16. Analyze the requirements of the
information and reports from the utility
point of view
17. Compare the costs of the old and the
new system and the benefits offered
18. Obtain approval of the new system
19. Write a system manual
 System Analysis of a New
60
Requirement
1. Definition of the system and its
objective
2. Development of the system (Analysis-
Design-Programming)
3. Installation of the system
4. Operations of the system
5. Review and evaluation
 Contd.,
61
 Contd.,
62
 Contd.,
63

Stages in Steps in each stage Purpose

developme
nt cycle
Installation The system is tested and
of the installed on the hardware
system and for implementation.
testing Switching over to computer
system after thorough
operational testing
Operations The system is operated in
of the full course and existing
system systems (if any)
discontinued
Review and A review is taken whether
Evaluation the system objectives are
being met with and what
are the problems in the
The step ensures that the
operational problems are resolved
and the user gets live experience of
the system. Modifications, if any,
are carried out. Checks and
controls are ensured through
testing and the parallel runs.
The user confidence is built and the
designer simultaneously evaluates
the performance of the computer
system
This is an audit by the designer for
improvement through test data and
audit trail.
 System Development Model
64

 Waterfall Model: This model describes a

development method that is linear and
sequential.
 Waterfall development has distinct goals
for each phase of development.
 Once a phase of development is
completed, the development proceeds to
the next phase and there is no turning
back.
 SDLC Phases

65
 Advantages of Waterfall
66
Model
 It allows for departmentalization and managerial
control.
 A schedule can be set with deadlines for each stage of
development and a product can proceed through the
development process.
 Development moves from concept, through design,
implementation, testing, installation, troubleshooting,
and ends up at operation and maintenance.
 Each phase of development proceeds in strict order,
without any overlapping or iterative steps.
 Disadvantages of Waterfall
67
Model
 It does not allow for much reflection or
revision.
 Once an application is in the testing
stage, it is very difficult to go back and
change something that was not well-
thought out in the concept stage.
 Spiral Model
68

 The spiral model, also known as the

spiral lifecycle model
 This model of development combines
the features of the prototyping model
and the waterfall model
 The spiral model is favored for large,
expensive, and complicated projects.
 Spiral Model
69
 Steps in Spiral Model
70

1. The new system requirements are defined in as

much detail as possible. This usually involves
interviewing a number of users representing all the
external or internal users and other aspects of the
existing system.
2. A preliminary design is created for the new system.
3. A first prototype of the new system is constructed
from the preliminary design. This is usually a scaled-
down system, and represents an approximation of
the characteristics of the final product.
 Contd.,
71

4. A second prototype is evolved by a fourfold procedure:

(1) evaluating the first prototype in terms of its
strengths, weaknesses, and risks; (2) defining the
requirements of the second prototype; (3) planning
and designing the second prototype; (4) constructing
and testing the second prototype.
5. At the customer's option, the entire project can be
aborted if the risk is deemed too great. Risk factors
might involve development cost overruns, operating-
cost miscalculation, or any other factor that could, in
the customer's judgment, result in a less-than-
satisfactory final product.
 Contd.,
72

6. The existing prototype is evaluated in the same

manner as was the previous prototype, and, if
necessary, another prototype is developed from it
according to the fourfold procedure outlined above.
7. The preceding steps are iterated until the customer
is satisfied that the refined prototype represents the
final product desired.
8. The final system is constructed, based on the refined
prototype.
9. The final system is thoroughly evaluated and tested.
Routine maintenance is carried out on a continuing
basis to prevent large-scale failures and to minimize
downtime.
 Measure of a Good System
73

 The definition of a good system varies with

the system’s environment
 The performance may be the key measure
 The ability to change fast may be the key
measure
 The user friendliness could be a measure

 In all cases, the correctness of the result is a

common measure, making them reliable and
dependable for the business operations.
 Contd.,
74

 The speed and response are the performance

measures in case of large volume transaction-based
systems
 The flexible design is a measure of performance
where the system needs continuous modifications
 In complex systems, the user friendliness and the
ease of operations become the measure
 A good system design considers the environment
and the users, and incorporates all the needs and
expectations.
 The System Development
75
Methods
 Traditional software development methods: Deal with
functions and data separately
 Structured Systems Analysis and Design (SSAD) - Ross
 Structured Analysis and Structure Design (SASD) – Yourdon

 A system developed with SSAD is easy to understand

but difficult to maintain
 The reason is that for each function and its behavior the
data structure id defined
 The functionality behaves correctly under the
conditions of the rigid data definition and structure.
 Contd.,
76

 In real life the data format changes, calling

for a change in the programs to meet the
revised format and its processing
 The length of the program and its complexity
increases due to first checking the data
condition, and then moving the control to an
appropriate command
 In SSAD approach, the user should have two
views:
 The first view on the data and
 The second on its functionality.
 Contd.,
77

 Object Oriented Technology (OOT) views the

system and then models in terms of Object,
where the function and data are defined at its
lowest level
 OOT views data and function as one
integrated entity
 In SSAD, the requirement is fulfilled through
defining and associating the data for each
function
 In the OOT, the requirement is fulfilled
through the object(s) processing, where the
object itself is based on the behavior.
 Contd.,
78

 A good object model of the system does not

require any changes at a ‘class’ or ‘super class’
level but only at the instance level
 In SSAD, this would need a condition definition
for recognition, then the changes in the data and
process flow, further defining the output of the
new requirement
 In OOT, the situation is handled by creating an
instance where only the computing behavior is
different from the others.
 Contd.,
79

 The instance is created by using the

principle of inheritance
 Hence the change in the system and the
program progress is only at the lowest
level and is local, not running across the
total model of the system
 For a given business functionality, the
objects are defined in different categories
and the system design is built through the
objects and is processed through object
processing.
 Contd.,
80

 The following steps of the development are

common
 Requirement Analysis
 Requirement Definition
 System Design – Input, Process and Output
design
 System Development – Structuring the modules
and Developing the modules
 Unit Testing
 Integration of the modules
 Integrated system testing
 Implementation
 Maintenance
 Symbols in SSAD
81
 External Entity - Rules
82

• External people, systems

and data stores
• Reside outside the system,
but interact with system
• Either a) receive info from
system, b) trigger system
into motion, or c) provide
new information to system
• e.g. Customers, managers
• Not clerks or other staff who
simply move data
 Data Store - Rules
83

• Internal to the system

• Data at rest
• Include in system if the
system processes transform
the data D1 Data Store
– Store, Add, Delete,
Update
• Every data store on DFD
should correspond to an
entity on an ERD
• Data stores can come in
many forms:
– Hanging file folders
 Data Flow - Rules
84

• Data in motion, moving from

one place to another in the
system
– From external entity
Data Flow
(source) to system
– From system to external
entity (sink)
– From internal symbol to
internal symbol, but
always either start or end
at a process
 Processes
85

 Logical process models omit any processes that do nothing more than
move or route data, thus leaving the data unchanged. Valid
processes include those that:
– Perform computations (e.g., calculate grade point average)
– Make decisions (determine availability of ordered products)
– Sort, filter or otherwise summarize data (identify overdue invoices)
– Organize data into useful information (e.g., generate a report or
answer a question)
– Trigger other processes (e.g., turn on the furnace or instruct a
robot)
– Use stored data (create, read, update or delete a record)
 Reading a DFD
86
 Customer Validation:
87
Process Model
Small Reject

Private Si Large Accept

ze
Medium Accept

Undertaking Accept
Ty Governmen Ki
Central Reject
p t n
e d
State Reject

USA Accept

Export Co
Asia
un Reject
try
Europe Accept
 Computer System Design
88

 The computer system design consists of

five major steps:
 Designing the output
 Designing the input

 Processing

 Data specifications

 Procedure specifications
 Output Design
89

 The information as an output, can be printed,

displayed or stored
 The output design requires to determine the
reports, the screens, the contents of the
reports and the screen and the layout of the
contents
 Report should have an appropriate title with a
period reference, date of processing and a
system title
 Pages should be numbered, with title repeated
with the statistics such as the number of
records, items…
 Contd.,
90

 The layout should be such that the readability from left

to right and from top to bottom
 Each column and row should have meaningful titles
 The layout should provide sub- and grand totals
 Expanded form should be provided for abbreviations
and should be universal and common
 Highlight the areas of concern where the attention of
management is required.
 Input Design
91

 The guidelines for selecting the data item

from the document and grouping them into
record are:
 Only the data items which have a current
and a prospective use should be included.
 The data items from a document should be
grouped together and arranged in logical
order of its use in processing.
 The grouping of the data items should be in
line with its application.
 Processing Design
92

 The process design deals with two types:

 Computing and
 Decision making
 Data Specifications
93

 The data specification is expressed in terms of

 length of an item in terms of characters,
 its nature in terms of numeric or alpha or alphanumeric

 A data item may have some value and hence it

would have come conditions and validity
 The specifications are used for error checking,
control and processing
 A data item before it is accepted as an input is
checked against specifications.
 Procedure Design
94

 The guidelines for drawing the system flowchart are

 Identify the start and the end of the system
 Identify the inputs, in terms of the data and the
documents entering in the system, in their logical
order. Determine the transaction and the master files in
the system
 Identify the output at each stage and decide the media
for processing and storage.
 Steps in Procedure Design
95

Steps Explanation Comment

Data entry of A simple data entry as per Provides the data entry programs
the the input design specificationfor all the documents considered
transactions, in the system
master data
Data The data entry is validated Shows the errors of presence and
validation as per the input picture absence of the data entity and
specification and control any violation of given
specification specifications
Transaction Validates the transactions forShows the wrong type of
validation its type and for the internal transactions entering in the
consistency system and the mistake in the
documentation of the transaction

Edit and The errors and new data to Helps to correct the data at all
update be updated to complete the the levels
records
 Contd.,
96

Steps Explanation Comment

Data Shows at each stage the Helps to understand the step by
processing process and the activities step development of system
such as sort, merge, collate processing
and computer. It also shows
the use of files and its
further use in the system

Output Show whether the output is Helps to understand how the

processing printed, displayed and output is produced.
stored. Shows the device on
which the output is
processed
 MIS and the Systems
97
Analysis
 The tools of the systems analysis and the
method of development enforce a discipline
on the designer to follow the steps
 The success of MIS lies in meeting the
information needs of the various personnel
in the organization
 The systems analysis with its structural
analysis and design approach ensures an
appropriate coverage of the subsystems
 The data entities and attributes are
considered completely
 Contd.,
98

 The systems analysis begins with the output

design
 The systems analysis and design exercise
considers testing the feasibility of the system as
an important step
 The system analysis is not restricted to the data-
process-output. It also covers the technologies
which enables the process feasible
 An emerging model of the MIS is with the
databases stored in the back-end servers and the
front-end users having access to it.
 Flowchart symbols
99

Start/End: The terminator symbol marks the starting or ending point

of the system. It usually contains the word "Start" or "End."
Action or Process: A box can represent a single step ("add two
cups of flour"), or and entire sub-process ("make bread") within a
larger process.
Document: A printed document or report.

Decision: A decision or branching point. Lines representing different

decisions emerge from different points of the diamond.
Input / Output: Represents material or information entering or
leaving the system, such as customer order (input) or a product
(output).
Connector: Indicates that the flow continues where a matching
symbol (containing the same letter) has been placed.
Flow Line: Lines indicate the sequence of steps and the direction of
flow.
 Contd.,
100

Delay: Indicates a delay in the process.

Merge: Indicates a step where two or more sub-lists or sub-processes

become one.
Collate: Indicates a step that orders information into a standard
format.
Sort: Indicates a step that organizes a list of items into a sequence or
sets based on some pre-determined criteria.
Subroutine: Indicates a sequence of actions that perform a specific
task embedded within a larger process. This sequence of actions could
be described in more detail on a separate flowchart.
Manual Loop: Indicates a sequence of commands that will continue to
repeat until stopped manually.
Loop Limit: Indicates the point at which a loop should stop.

Data storage: Indicates a step where data gets stored.

 Contd.,
101

Database: Indicates a list of information with a standard structure

that allows for searching and sorting.

Display: Indicates a step that displays information.

Off Page: Indicates that the flowchart is connected at a different

page.
102