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Semiconductor

Session 26

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Topics

1. Band Theory of Solids


2. Semiconductor
3. Electrons and holes
4. p and n types of Semiconductor

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1. Band Theory of Solids
In order to account for decreasing resistivity with
increasing temperature as well as other properties of
semiconductors, a new theory known as the band theory
is introduced.
The essential feature of the band theory is that the
allowed energy states for electrons are nearly continuous
over certain ranges, called energy bands, with forbidden
energy gaps between the bands.
In the symmetric case the binding energy is slightly
stronger resulting in a lower energy state.
Thus there is a splitting of all possible energy levels (1s, 2s,
and so on).

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Valence band: Band occupied by the outermost electrons
Conduction band : Lowest band with unoccupied states

Conductor: Valence band partially filled (half full) Cu.


or Conduction band overlaps the valence band

Conduction
band

Valence
band

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Valence and Conduction Bands
The band structures of insulators and semiconductors resemble each
other qualitatively. Normally there exists in both insulators and
semiconductors a filled energy band (referred to as the valence band)
separated from the next higher band (referred to as the conduction
band) by an energy gap.

If this gap is at least several electron volts, the material is


an insulator. It is too difficult for an applied field to
overcome that large an energy gap, and thermal
excitations lack the energy to promote sufficient numbers
of electrons to the conduction band.

Smaller energy gaps create semiconductors

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Smaller energy gaps create semiconductors

For energy gaps smaller than about 3 eV, it is possible


for enough electrons to be excited thermally into the
conduction band, so that an applied electric field can
produce a modest current.

The result is a semiconductor.

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2. Semiconductor
Semiconductors are materials that essentially can be
conditioned to act as good conductors, or good
insulators, or any thing in between.
Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and
germanium are semiconductors.
Silicon is the best and most widely used semiconductor.

Pure silicon has a high resistivity and it is effectively


an insulator. However, its resistivity can be greatly
reduced in a controlled way by adding minute amounts
of specific impurity atoms in a process called
doping.

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(b) Resistivity
The resistivity of material : = m/(e2n)
Where: - m is the electron mass
- e is fundamental charge
- n is the number of charge carries per unit
Volume
- is the mean time between collisions of
the charge caries
In a semiconductor, n is small but increases very
rapidly with temperature as the increased thermal
agitation makes more charge carriers available.

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(c) Temperature coefficient of resistivity
The fractional change in resistivity per unit change in

temperature:
For silicon:
- collision frequency increase with temperature

- resistivity decrease with temperature ( <0)


fractional change is negative for silicon.

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Extra weakly bound valence electron from As lies in an
energy level close to the empty conduction band. These
levels donate electrons to the conduction band.

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Doping

To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other


atoms called impurities must be added.
Impurities are different elements.
This process is called doping.

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Semiconductors can be Conductors
An impurity, or
element like arsenic,
has 5 valence
electrons.
Adding arsenic
(doping) will allow
four of the arsenic
valence electrons to
bond with the
neighboring silicon
atoms.
The one electron left
over for each arsenic
atom becomes
available to conduct
current flow.
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Resistance Effects of Doping
If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will be
lots of extra electrons so the resistance of the material
will be low and current will flow freely.
If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be fewer
free electrons so the resistance will be high and less
current will flow.
By controlling the doping amount, virtually any
resistance can be achieved.

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3. Electrons and holes
Semiconductors distinguish themselves from metals and
insulators by the fact that they contain an "almost-empty"
conduction band and an "almost-full" valence band. This also
means that we will have to deal with the transport of carriers
in both bands.

Holes are missing electrons. They behave as particles


with the same properties as the electrons would have
occupying the same states except that they carry a
positive charge.
This definition is illustrated further with the figure
below which presents the simplified energy band
diagram in the presence of an electric field.
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Energy band diagram in the presence of a uniform electric
field. Shown are electrons (red circles) which move against the
field and holes (blue circles) which move in the direction of the
applied field.
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The electrons in the conduction band are negatively charged
particles which therefore move in a direction which opposes the
direction of the field. Electrons therefore move down hill in the
conduction band. Electrons in the valence band also move in
the same direction. The total current due to the electrons in the
valence band can therefore be written as:

where V is the volume of the semiconductor, q is the electronic


charge and v is the electron velocity. The sum is taken over all
occupied or filled states in the valence band. This expression
can be reformulated by first taking the sum over all the states in
the valence band and subtracting the current due to the
electrons which are actually missing in the valence band.

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This last term therefore represents the sum taken over all
the empty states in the valence band, or:

The sum over all the states in the valence band has to
equal zero since electrons in a completely filled band do
not contribute to current, while the remaining term can be
written as:

which states that the current is due to positively charged


particles associated with the empty states in the valence
band. 19
Holes and Intrinsic Semiconductors
When electrons move into the conduction band, they leave
behind vacancies in the valence band. These vacancies are
called holes. Because holes represent the absence of
negative charges, it is useful to think of them as positive
charges.
Whereas the electrons move in a direction opposite to the
applied electric field, the holes move in the direction of the
electric field.
A semiconductor in which there is a balance between the
number of electrons in the conduction band and the
number of holes in the valence band is called an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include pure carbon and
germanium. 20
An intrinsic semiconductor. The electrons move toward the left and the
holes move toward the right when the applied electric field is to the right
as shown.
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4. p and n types of Semiconductor

The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an n type


semiconductor.
n is for negative, which is the charge of an electron.
Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce
locations called holes is called p type semiconductor.
p is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.

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n-type Semiconductor

The addition of arsenic to silicon creates what is known


as an n-type semiconductor, because it is the electrons
close to the conduction band that will eventually carry
electrical current.

The new arsenic energy levels just below the


conduction band are called donor levels because an
electron there is easily donated to the conduction band.

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Ga has only three electrons and creates a hole in one of the
bonds. As electrons move into the hole the hole moves
driving electric current

Impurity creates empty energy


levels just above the filled
valence band
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p-type Semiconductor
Consider what happens when indium is added to silicon.
Indium has one less electron in its outer shell than silicon.
The result is one extra hole per indium atom.
The existence of these holes creates extra energy levels
just above the valence band, because it takes relatively
little energy to move another electron into a hole
Those new indium levels are called acceptor levels
because they can easily accept an electron from the
valence band.
Again, the result is an increased flow of current (or
equivalently, lower electrical resistance) , as the electrons
move to fill holes under an applied electric field.

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n-type Semiconductor

The addition of arsenic to silicon creates what is known


as an n-type semiconductor, because it is the electrons
close to the conduction band that will eventually carry
electrical current.

The new arsenic energy levels just below the


conduction band are called donor levels because an
electron there is easily donated to the conduction
band.

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The pn junction

A single semiconductor crystal that has been selectively


doped so that one region is n-type material, and the adjacent
region is p-type material.
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Region depleted from
mobile carriers
Potential barrier
prevents further
diffusion of holes
and electrons.
Zero current for
no external E field

(a) The physical arrangement of a p -n junction. (b) Built-in electric


field versus x for the p -n junction. (c) Built-in potential versus x for
the p -n junction.
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Example of semiconductors
devices
1. Diode
2. Transistor
3. IC

Source: Halliday, et All 2010


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