Microprocessor

The microprocessor, also known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU),

is the brain of all computers and many household and electronic
devices.
A microprocessor (sometimes abbreviated P) is a digital electronic
component with miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor
integrated circuit (IC).
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can

execute.
Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how
many instructions per second the processor can execute.
 Microprocessor is defined as a silicon chip embedded with a Central
Processing Unit or CPU. It is also referred to as a computer's logic chip,
micro chip, and processor.
A microprocessor is a programmable VLSI chip which controls and
performs all operations in a microcomputer. Its main units are-
ALU
Registers
Control Unit

Function :
The main function of a Microprocessor is to conduct
arithmetic and logic operations.
History of Microprocessor
The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004,
introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very powerful; it
was primarily used to perform simple mathematical
operations in a calculator called Busicom.
Evolution of Microprocessor
Microprocessors were categorized into five generations : first,
second, third, fourth, and fifth generations. Their
characteristics are described below:
First Generation:
The microprocessors that were introduced in 1971 to 1972 were
referred to as the first generation systems. First generation
microprocessors processed their instructions seriallythey
fetched the instruction, decoded it, then executed it. When
an instruction was completed, the microprocessor updated
the instruction pointer and fetched the next instruction,
performing this sequential drill for each instruction in turn.
Second Generation:
16 bit arithmetic and pipelined instruction processing. Motorolas
MC68000 microprocessor, introduced in 1979, is an example. Another
example is Intels 8080. This generation is defined by overlapped
fetch, decode, and execute steps. As the first instruction is
processed in the execution unit, the second instruction is decoded and
the third instruction is fetched.

The distinction between the first and second generation devices was
primarily the use of newer semiconductor technology to fabricate
the chips. This new technology resulted in a fivefold increase in
instruction, execution, speed, and higher chip densities.
Third Generation:
The third generation, introduced in 1978, was represented by Intels
8086 and the Zilog Z8000, which were 16bit processors with
minicomputer like performance.
The third generation came about as IC transistor counts approached
250,000.
Fourth Generation:
As the workstation companies converted from commercial
microprocessors to in house designs, microprocessors entered their
fourth generation with designs surpassing a million transistors.
Leading edge microprocessors such as Intels 80960CA and Motorolas
88100 could issue and retire more than one instruction per clock cycle.
Fifth Generation:
Microprocessors in their fifth generation, employed
decoupled super scalar processing, and their design
soon surpassed 10 million transistors. In this
generation, PCs are a low margin, high volume
business dominated by a single microprocessor.
Classification of Microprocessor:
The microprocessor is identified with the word size of data. For E.g. The
ALU can perform a 4bit data operation at a time these microprocessor is
called as 4 bit microprocessor.
4 - Bit Processors
INTEL 404 4040

8 - Bit Processors
8008, 8080, 8085, MOTOROLA 6800 (M6800)

16 - Bit Processors
8086, 8088, Zilog Z80,0 80186, 80286

32 - Bit Processors
Intel 80386, 80387, 80486 PENTIUM PENTIUM PRO

64- Bit Processors

Intel 64
Advantages of Microprocessor
Speed:
One advantage of a Microprocessor is its speed, which is
measured in hertz. For instance, a Microprocessor with 3
gigahertz, shortly GHz, is capable of performing 3 billion tasks
per second.
Data Movement:
Another advantage of a Microprocessor is that it can quickly
move data between the various memory locations.
Complex Mathematics:
Microprocessors are used to perform complicated
mathematical operations, like operating on the floating point
numbers.
Disadvantages of Microprocessor
Some of the disadvantages with the Microprocessor
are that it might get overheated.
And the limitation it imposes on the size of data.
Microprocessors are a mass storage device. The availability
of low cost, low power and small weight, computing
capability makes it useful in different applications.
Instrumentation: It is also used in medical
instrumentation.
Control: Microprocessor based controllers are available
in home appliances, such as microwave oven, washing
machine etc., microprocessors are being used in
controlling various parameters like speed, pressure,
temperature etc.
Communication:
Microprocessors are being used in a wide range of
communication equipments. In telephone industry, these
are used in digital telephone sets.
Telephone exchanges and modem etc.
The use of microprocessor in television, satellite
communication have made teleconferencing possible.
Railway reservation and air reservation system also uses
this technology.
LAN and WAN for communication of vertical information
through computer network.
 Consumer:
The use of microprocessor in toys, entertainment equipment and home
applications is making them more entertaining and full of features.
Now the Microprocessors are used in :
1. Calculators
2. Accounting system
3. Games machine
4. Automotive Industry
5. Traffic light Control
6. Data acquisition systems
7. Military applications
(1)UAV
Motion DSP's Ikena ISR product uses algorithms to
enhance video with cleaner detail, increased
resolution, and reduced noise, making it well suited
for real-time streaming of high quality video from
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) sensors. By
harnessing Nvidia Tesla GPUs, the software can
process 30 frames per second, with less than 300
milliseconds latency.
Image processing
Signal processing
(2) CFD
Nvidia's GPUs are actively being adopted in aerospace
and defence data centres as well as in electronics
systems on the battlefield. Its Tesla brand GPUs are
designed to meet computational requirements in data
centres and high-performance computing
environments, as well as to deliver performance
increases for a variety of applications, including
computational fluid dynamics, video processing,
synthetic aperture radar (SAR), and
electromagnetic.
(3) Military
Xilinx integrated processors and embedded processing
solutions are used in missiles and munitions, for
target tracking military communications, for black
side modem operations and electronic
warfare/intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance (EW/ISR), such as radar algorithm
processing.
Demand for optimized SWaPC products is also growing,
along with the UAV market. "The need for small,
lightweight, fan less products will drive the development
of microprocessors over the next several decades,"
(4) Helicopter
The Apache helicopter and airborne and land
based combat vehicles employs the company's
COBALT with an on board 8 port GigE switch, as
well as an 80 gigabyte, solid state drive and a Kontron
Core2Duo single board computer. COBALT is a
small, lightweight computing device based on
Kontron's COM Express single board computer
offering fan less operation and a Gigabit Ethernet
interface.
(5)Satellite application
The first generation, single board computer was a rad hard
version of a MILSTD 1750 processor followed by the
RAD6000, a rad hard version of an IBM RISC System 6000
processor. The current generation RAD750, a rad hard
version of an IBM PowerPC 750 processor, is adopted for
satellite single board computers serving command and
control functions and onboard payload processing. The
Advanced Extremely High Frequency satellite, a U.S.
Department of Defence (DOD) secured communications
satellite, uses two RAD6000 computers for satellite control
and eight RAD750 computers for the payload.
(6)TCAS (Navigation System)
TCAS has a self test capability to perform Initiated
Built-in Test (IBIT) and Periodic Built-in Test (PBIT) to
monitor the operational status of itself and its
interfacing equipment.
DME
TACCAN
MIP7965, 64bit Superscaler 750MHz MIPS
Microprocessor
Extended temperature characterized PMCSierra
RM7965 microprocessor
Dual Issue symmetric superscalar microprocessor with
instruction prefetch optimized for system level
price/performance
High performance interface (RM70xx compatible)
(E9000 core)
Integrated primary and secondary caches all are 4way
set associative with 32 byte line size
Packaged in a 256TBGA plastic package
 MIP7365, 64bit
Superscaler 450MHz MIPS Microprocessor
Extended temperature characterized PMCSierra
RM7065 microprocessor
Dual Issue symmetric superscalar microprocessor with
instruction prefetch optimized for system level
price/performance
High performance interface (RM70xx compatible)
(E7000 core)
Integrated primary and secondary caches all are 4way
set associative with 32 byte line size
Packaged in a 216Epad plastic package
 ACT7000ASC
64Bit
Superscaler Microprocessor
Full militarized PMCSierra RM7000A microprocessor
Dual Issue symmetric superscalar microprocessor with
instruction prefetch optimized for system level
price/performance
High performance interface (RM52xx compatible)
Integrated primary and secondary caches all are 4way
set associative with 32 byte line size
Packaged in a 208lead Ceramic Quad Flatpack
Packaged in a 208lead Ceramic Quad Flatpack, inverted
footprint (cavity down)
Future functionality
Anemone processor
OpenVPX module processor
Examples with Explanation
Intel 8085
Intel 8086
Intel 8080
8085 pin diagram
Module II- 8085 Pins
For complete understanding of the interfacing circuits of
memory, I/O devices etc. to the 8085 CPU it is required
to learn about the functions of all the pins of 8085. The
pins of 8085 are classified in following groups:
Address and Data pins
Control & status pins
Interrupt pins
Serial I/O pins
Clock pins
Reset pins
DMA pins
Power supply pins
Pin description
Higher Order Address pins- A15 A8
Lower Order Address/ Data Pins- AD7-AD0
These are time multiplexed pins and are de-multiplexed using the pin
ALE
Control Pins RD, WR
These are active low Read & Write pins
Status Pins ALE, IO/M (active low), S1, S0
ALE (Address Latch Enable)-Used to de-multiplex AD7-AD0
IO/M Used to select I/O or Memory operation
S1,S0 Denote the status of data on data bus
Interrupt Pins TRAP, RST7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, INTR, INTA
These are hardware interrupts used to initiate an interrupt service
routine stored at predefined locations of the system memory.
Serial I/O pins SID (Serial Input Data), SOD (Serial Output Data)
These pins are used to interface 8085 with a serial device.
Pin Description Contd.
Clock Pins- X1, X2, CLK(OUT)
X1, X2- These are clock input pins. A crystal is connected between
these pins such that fcrystal= 2f8085 where fcrystal= crystal frequency &
f8085 = operating frequency of 8085
CLK(OUT) This is an auxiliary clock output source
Reset Pins Reset In (active low), Reset Out
Reset In is used to reset 8085 whereas Reset Out can be used to
reset other devices in the system
DMA (Direct Memory Access) pins HOLD, HLDA
These pins are used when data transfer is to be performed directly
between an external device and the main memory of the system.
Power Supply Pins - +VCC, VSS
Memory Classification