Experimental Research

Definition
A research method that is used to examine the
EFFECTIVENESS of a particular action,
intervention or TREATMENT (Independent
Variable) on the occurrence of a particular
CHANGE (Dependent Variable)
Example:
An experimental research can be conducted to study the
effectiveness of computer-aided teaching (Independent
variable) on the learning of Mathematical concepts
(Dependent variable).
 PRETEST TREATMENT POSTTEST
(Maths Test) (CAT) (Maths Test)

Mean = 56.7
Mean = 72.5
SD = 1.30
SD = 1.25
 CONTROL GROUP: EXPERIMENTAL GROUP:
(Chalk & Talk Method) (CAT Method)

Maths Mean = 56.7 Mean = 72.5

Test SD = 1.30 SD = 1.25
TYPES OF One-Shot Design
RESEARCH Weak
DESIGNS Design One-group Pretest-
Posttest Design
Non-equivalent
Posttest-only Design
Experimental
After-only Research
Design (Posttest- Factorial
only Control Group Design
True
Research Design)
Design
Design
Before-After Research Design
(Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Design)

Quasi- Non-Equivalent Control-Group Design

Experimental
Interrupted Time Series Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: WEAK DESIGNS
ONE-SHOT DESIGN
X 0
(Teaching Method) (Science test)

1. Identify a group,
2. Provide treatment (e.g Instruction using a new
Science teaching method for 3 weeks).
3. Measure the outcome (e.g. science test)
4. Use the scores to indicate the effect

Weakness:
Selection bias
History
Maturation
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
01 X 02
(Science Pretest) (New Teaching Method) (Science posttest)

1. Identify the group and give a pretest

2. Provide treatment (e.g instruction using a new method
for 3 weeks).
3. Give a postttest at the end of treatment.
4. Use the difference in pretest and posttest scores to
indicate the effect.

Weaknesses:
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
History
Non-Equivalent Posttest-Only
EXPERIMENTAL X 0
(Teaching Method) (Science Test)

CONTROL 0
1. Identify two groups of subjects, Experimental &
Control.
2. Give the experimental group treatment
3. At the end of treatment, give both groups the same
science test.
4. Use the difference in posttest scores between the two
groups to indicate the effect.
Weakness:
Selection bias (No random assignment)
EXPERIMENTAL: TRUE DESIGN
(1) After-Only Design
(POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN)

Experimental R X 0
Control R - 0
1. Randomly select the subjects from the target population
2. Randomly assign subjects to the two groups, EXPT & CONTR
3. Give treatment to the EXPT. Group but not CONTR Group (E.g.
EXPT grp follows the new method while CONTR grp follows
the traditional instruction)
4. Give the same posttest to the two groups after the treatment
5. Use the difference in scores between the EXPT & CONTR
groups to indicate the effect.
Analysis:
Weakness: Mortality Independent-Samples T-test
FACTORIAL DESIGN
An After-only design that examines the effects
of two or more INDEPENDENT VARIABLES on
an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Independent Variables Dependent
Variable
Inductive Method
Teaching
Methods
Deductive Method Performance
in History
High Ability
Academic
Ability Low Ability
2 x 2 Factorial Design Independent Variable A

METHODS

Inductive Deductive
(A1) (A2)

High (B1) A1B1 A 2B 1

ACADEMIC
ABILITY

Independent
Variable B
A 1B 2 A 2B 2
Low (B2)
(2) Before-After Research Design
(Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design)
Pretest Treatment Posttest

Expt. Gp R 0 X 0
Contr Gp R 0 - 0

1. Randomly select sufficient number of subjects from the

target population.
2. Randomly assign the subjects to the EXPT & CONTR
groups and give the pretest on the dependent variable to
be assessed
Control for:
3. Provide treatment to the EXPT group
History, maturation,
4. Give the posttest to both the groups. testing, instrumentation,
regression & selection
5. Subject the data the Analysis of Covariance.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
An experimental research design that does not provide
for full control of potential confounding variables
Subjects cannot be randomly assigned Experiment
using intact classes

(1) Non-Equivalent Control-Group Design

Pretest Treatment Posttest

Expt (Kelas Hijau) 0 x 0

Contr (Kelas Merah) 0 - 0

Analysis: ANCOVA
(2) Interrupted Time Series Design

Multiple Pretest Treatment Multiple Posttests

01 02 03 X 04 05 06

Characteristics
Using an intact class
Give multiple pretests to obtain baseline data
Give multiple posttests to compare with baseline data
Subject data to Trend Analysis
SURVEY RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Survey research is the studying of large and small

populations by selecting samples chosen from the
populations to discover the relative incidence,
distribution and interrelations of sociological and
psychological variables.
Inference/generalisation

Reading Habits of Reading Habits

Random
Representative
Sample Sample
of Malaysian
Survey Selection Students

Inference/generalisation Census
 Questionnaire

Interview

Data
Collection
Tools In
Examination of Surveys
records
 Description of
Single Variables

Cross-Sectional
Survey Exploring
Relationships

Types of Trend Studies

Surveys
Longitudinal
Survey Cohort Studies

Panel Studies
 Description of
Single Variables

CROSS- Time-bound
SECTIONAL Association
SURVEY
Exploring
Relationships

Time-ordered
Association

Data collection is done at one point in time

CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY:
Description of single variable

Example:
To study the reading interest of secondary school
students, you administer a questionnaire with 20
items, each indicating a different type of reading
material. 200 respondents are asked to indicate
their degree of interest (e.g. always, sometimes,
never)

Analysis: Item by item using frequency counts

and percentages (descriptive
statistics)
- marginal tabulation
CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY:
Exploring Relationships

Time-bound Association

Example:
To examine the relationship between job satisfaction and readiness
for change, you administer two questionnaires, each on one variable,
to a sample of 150 working adults. They are asked to respond to the
items in each questionnaire based on their current attitude, feeling,
opinion, etc.

Current state
Possible Analysis:
(1) Correlation
(2) Chi-square Job Satisfaction
Readiness for Change
Time-ordered Association

Example:
To study whether attitude towards the teaching of Maths in English
is related to the amount of training. You administer a questionnaire
designed to collect information about the two variables, training (e.g.
frequency of courses) and attitude (e.g. Likert-type attitude statements)
to 150 primary school Maths teachers.
Data collection

Training Attitude
(2002) (2006)

Possible Analysis: Source of error:

Correlation
Respondents may not remember past
Chi-square
information
 Trend Studies

Longitudinal Cohort Studies

Survey

Panel Studies

Data collection is done at different points in time

Data Collection
 Trend Studies
Different samples are drawn from a given general
population at different data collection points and
surveyed
Example:
The Use of English in Teaching Maths among primary
school teachers

General Primary School

population is Maths Teachers
changing from
year to year

S1 S3
S2

2004 2005 2006

 Cohort Studies
Different samples are drawn from one specific
population at different data collection points and
surveyed

Example:
The Use of English in Teaching Maths among primary
school teachers

Population Primary School

remains the same Maths Teachers

S3
S1
S2

2005 2006
2004
 Panel Studies
A sample is drawn from a population and
surveyed over a period of time
Example:
The Use of English in Teaching Maths among primary
school teachers

Primary School
Maths Teachers

Sample

2004 2005 2006

SAMPLING IN SURVEYS
In research, it is impossible or uneconomical to study
the whole population. Researchers would normally
select a representative sample (sampel yang benar-
benar mewakili populasi) to work on and then make
inferences/generalisations about the population
using statistical techniques.

What is a representative sample?

 Representative Sample
Population Generalisation
(N = 10,000)
SAMPLE
(n = 500)
Characteristics:
- Gender: 51000 (M); 4900 (F) Characteristics:

- SES: 2500 (H), 4000 (M), - Gender: 255 (M); 245 (F)
Sampling
3500 (L) - SES: 125 (H), 200 (M), 175 (L)

- Race : 5000 (M), 3000 (C), - Race : 250(M), 150(C), 50 (I),

1000 (I), 1000 (O). 50(O).

5% Sample
Population
Representative Sample = Sample that has similar characteristics as the
population Population Validity