Linear Measurement

Linear measurement includes the measurement of

lengths, diameters, heights and thickness including
External and Internal Measurement.

The basic principle of linear measurement is that of

comparison with standard dimensions on a suitably
engraved instrument or device.

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Classification of Linear Measurement
Linear measuring instruments are categorized depending
upon their accuracy.

1. Non-precision instruments
1. Steel rule
2. Caliper
3. Divider

2. Precision instruments
1. Micrometers
2. Vernier Caliper
3. Slip Gauge
4. Vernier height and depth Gauge

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Classification of Linear Measurement
Classification based on Method of Measurement:
1. Direct measuring Instrument
2. Indirect measuring Instrument

Instrument also can be classified :

1. Graduated Instrument
1. Micrometers
2. Vernier Caliper
3. Steel rule
4. Vernier height and depth Gauge
2. Non- Graduated Instrument
1. Caliper
2. Slip Gauge

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Steel Rule
It is the simplest and most common linear measuring
instruments in inspection.
It works on of comparing an unknown length to be
measured with the previously calibrated length.
The rule must be graduated uniformly throughout its
length.
Rules are made in 150, 300, 500 and 1000 mm length.
The degree of accuracy when measurements are made
by a steel rule depends upon the quality of the rule, and
the skill of the user.

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Calipers
Calipers are used for measurement of the parts, which
cannot be measured directly with the scale.( Circular Part)
Thus, they are accessories to scales.

A caliper is used to transfer the distance between the

faces of a component to a scale or micrometer.

Calipers are of two types :

1. Spring type Calipers

2. Fixed joint (firm joint) type Calipers

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Fixed joint (firm joint) type Calipers
They work on the friction created at the junction of
the legs.
The two legs are identical in shape with the contact
points equally distant from the fulcrum and are joined
together by a rivet.
The legs become certain loose after certain use but
can be adjusted easily.
They can be designed for outside as well as inside
measurement.
These calipers are available in the nominal size of
100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 mm.

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Fixed joint (firm joint) type Calipers

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Spring type Calipers
Spring caliper are improved variety of ordinary friction
joint caliper.
The caliper are adjusted to set dimension by means of
knurled nut on a threaded adjusting screw.
As the name explains, the two legs are attached with
spring in this type of calipers.
The tendency of the spring is to force the legs apart and
the distance between them can be adjusted by applying
the spring pressure by tightening the nut.
Spring caliper are more accurate and permit accurate
sense of touch in measuring.
The inside and outside calipers are available in the size of
75, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 mm.

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Spring type Calipers

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Outside Calipers
These are designed to measure outside dimensions.
An outside caliper has two legs which are bent inwards as
shown in fig.
It can be used for measuring or comparing diameters,
thickness and other outside dimensions by transferring
the reading to the steel rule or micrometer.

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Outside Calipers

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Inside Calipers
These are designed to measure inside dimensions.
An inside caliper has two legs which are bent outwards at
the end as shown in fig.

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Inside Calipers

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Transfer Calipers
These are used for measuring recessed areas from which
the legs of calipers can not be removed directly but must
be collapsed after the dimension has been measured.

Therefore, an auxiliary arm is provided with two legs so

that it can preserve the original setting after the legs are
collapsed.

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Divider
A divider is similar in construction to a caliper except that
both legs are straight with sharp hardened points at the
end as shown in Figure.
Divider are used in the process of marking out suitable
work pieces. A steel scale must be used with this
instrument.
These are used for scribing arcs and circles and general
layout work.

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Vernier Calipers
The vernier calipers give a direct reading of the distance
measured with high accuracy and precision.
Vernier calipers can measure internal dimensions (using
the uppermost jaws), external dimensions using the lower
jaws and depth by the use of a depth bar that is attached
to the movable head and slides along the centre of the
body.

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Vernier Calipers
Principle : It uses two scales (main and auxiliary scales)
or division slightly different size are used, then the
difference between them can be utilized to enhanced the
accuracy of measurement.

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Vernier Calipers
Parts of a vernier caliper:
Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or
width of an object
Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an
object
Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a
hole

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Least count of Vernier Calipers
Ratio of smallest division on main scale to total no. of
division on vernier scale.

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Measurement with Vernier Calipers
To read a measurement from a vernier caliper, first the main
scale reading up to the zero of the vernier scale is noted down.
It will give accuracy up to the smallest division of the main
scale.
Now, vernier number of vernier scale division from its zero,
which coincides exactly with the main scale is noted. This
number when multiplied with the Least count gives the vernier
scale reading. The actual length is obtained when the vernier
scale reading is added to the main scale reading.

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Measurement with Vernier Calipers
An enlarged view of the calipers in Figure shows they
have an accuracy of 0.02 mm.
The 3 mm is read off from the upper (fixed) scale. The
0.58 mm is obtained from the lower (sliding) scale at the
point of closest alignment between the two scales.
The reading is 3.58 mm.

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Vernier Height Gauge
It works on the principle of vernier caliper except that it has to
be used in conjunction with a surface plate.
The vernier height gauge is mainly used in inspection of parts
and layout work.
It may be used to measure & mark vertical distance above a
reference surface.
The reading taken similar to vernier caliper.

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Vernier Height Gauge

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Vernier Height Gauge
1.base
2.beam
3.vernier scale
4. fine setting device
5. vernier plate
6. locking screws
7. scriber

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Vernier Depth Gauge
A vernier depth is very commonly used precision instrument for
measuring depth of holes & slot.
Its method of reading are similar to those of a vernier caliper.
Vernier depth gauge consist of main scale, vernier scale, base
and locking screw.
In vernier depth gauge graduated scale can slide through the
base and vernier scale remain fix.

Pushpak Patel, Asst. Professor,CSPIT,Changa 25

Vernier Depth Gauge
1. Base
2. Graduated beam ( Main Scale)
3. Clamping screw
4. Fine adjustment mechanism
5. Vernier scale

Pushpak Patel, Asst. Professor,CSPIT,Changa 26

Vernier Depth Gauge

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Micrometer

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Micrometer
WOKING PRINCIPLE: The micrometer works on the principle
of screw and nut .The longitudinal movement of the spindle
during one rotation is equal to the pitch of the screw. The
movement of the spindle to the distance of the pitch or its
fractions can be accurately measured on the barrel and
thimble.

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Parts of Micrometer
Spindle : one end of the spindle is the measuring face. The
other end is threaded and passes through a nut. The threaded
mechanism allows for the forward and backward movement of
the spindle.
Spindle lock nut : The spindle lock nut is used to lock the
spindle at a desired position.

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Parts of Micrometer
Thimble : On the beveled surface of the thimble also ,
graduation is marked. The spindle is attached to this. forward
and backward movement of the spindle is controlled by rotation
of Thimble.
Barrel : It has fixed graduation which are clearly engraved on
it.
Anvil: The anvil is one of the measuring faces which is fitted
on the micrometer frame. It is made of alloy steel and finished
to a perfectly flat surface.
Ratchet : The ratchet ensures a uniform pressure between the
measuring surfac e.

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Micrometer
Least count of micrometer is defined as value of smallest
division on main scale ( Barrel) to the total no. of division on
Thimble .
L.C. = 0.01 mm

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Micrometer Reading
barrel reading = 13.50
thimble reading = 0.13
total = 13.63 mm

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Types of Micrometer
Outside micrometer
Inside micrometer
Depth micrometer
Digital micrometer
Screw Thread Micrometer

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Types of Micrometer

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Inside Micrometer
It is used to check internal dimensions such as diameter
of a hole and width of a slot.
Unlike the conventional micrometer, an inside micrometer
does not have any U-shape frame and spindle.
One of the jaws is held stationary at the end and second
one moves by the movement of the thimble. A locknut is
provided to stop the movement of the movable jaw.

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Inside Micrometer
The inside micrometer is intended for internal measurement to
an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
In principle, it is similar to an external micrometer and is used
for measuring holes with a diameter over 50 mm. It consists of :
(a) measuring unit
(b) extension rod
(c) handle.

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Inside micrometer

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Inside micrometer

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Depth micrometer
Depth micrometers is used to measure the depth of holes,
slots and recess area.

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Screw Thread Micrometer
Screw Thread Micrometer is used to measure measuring
pitch diameter of screw thread.

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Slip Gauge / Gauge Blocks
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high grade
hardened steel having a cross-section of about 9 mm x 30
mm.
These are first hardened to resist wear and carefully
stabilized so that they are independent of any subsequent
variation in size or shape.
After being hardened, blocks are carefully finished on the
measuring faces to such a fine degree of finish(Lapping),
flatness and accuracy .

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Slip Gauge / Gauge Blocks

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Wringing of Slip Gauge
The combination is made by pressing the faces into
contact and then imparting a small twisting motion while
maintaining the contact pressure. This is called wringing.
Wringing occurs due to molecular adhesion between a
liquid film and the mating surface.

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According to accuracy, the slip gauges
can be graded into categories :
Reference grade : these slip gauge are used as
standards by manufacturing slip gauges.
Calibration grade : these slip gauge is used where
highest level of accuracy required in normal engineering
practices. these gauge are used with comparator to
calibrate the other slip gauge.
Grade 00 : This grade would be kept in the Standard
Room and would be kept for work of the highest precision
work as checking other lower grade slip gauges (Grade I
& II).
Grade 0 : This is more commonly known as the
inspection grade, and its use is to tool room or machine
shop inspection where high precision required.

Pushpak Patel, Asst. Professor,CSPIT,Changa 45

According to accuracy, the slip gauges
can be graded into categories :
Grade I: these slip gauge are used for general purpose
manufacturing gauges in applications like tool, gauges
and component productions.
Grade II : these slip gauge is used for checking of
components having wide tolerances. These are also
known as workshop grade.

Pushpak Patel, Asst. Professor,CSPIT,Changa 46

Normal Set of Slip Gauge
Slip gauges of the following dimensions are available in
this type of set.

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Special Set of Slip Gauge
Slip gauges of the following dimensions are available in
this type of set.

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Application of Slip Gauge
They are used to check the accuracy of verniers,
Micrometers and other measuring device.
They are used to set the comparator to a specific
dimension.
They are used for direct precise measurement where the
accuracy of work piece is important.
They are frequently used with sine bar to measure angle
of work piece.
They can be used to check gap between parallel
locations.

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COMPARATORS
A comparator is a precision instruments used for
comparing the dimension of a workpiece with a working
standards or master setting which represents the basic
size.
A comparator works on relative measurements, it does
not measure the actual dimension but indicates how much
differs from the basic dimension.
The indicated difference is normally small and hence
suitable magnification device is provide to measure the
difference with consistent accuracy.

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Characteristics Of Good Comparator
It should be compact and easy to handle.
The comparator design must be such that it can be
used for wide range of operations.
The display or indicating system should be display
result in least possible time.
It should have less maintenance.
It should free from friction and wear.
The recording and measuring scale should be linear and
uniform. It should be record and measure small variation
in the dimension.
The instruments should be very sensitive as per
requirement.

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Application of Comparator
The comparators are used to check the parts in mass
production at a very fast rate.
They are used to inspect newly purchased gauges.
They are work as a laboratory standards from which
working or inspection gauges are set and correlated.
They are also used as working gauges to prevent work
spoilage and to maintain required tolerance at all
important stage of manufacturing.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPARATORS
(1)Mechanical comparators
(2) Mechanical optical comparators
(3) Electrical and electronics comparator
(4) Pneumatic comparators
(5) Fluid displacement comparators
(6) Projection comparators
(7) Multi check comparators
(8) Electro mechanical comparators

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Comparator
They are employed to find out, by how much the
dimensions of the given component differ from that of a
known datum. If the indicated difference is small, a
suitable magnification device is selected to obtain the
desired accuracy of measurements.
It is an indirect type of instrument and used for linear
measurement. If the dimension is less or greater, than the
standard, then the difference will be shown on the dial.
It gives only the difference between actual and standard
dimension of the work piece.

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Comparator
In short, Comparator is a device which
(1)Picks up small variations in dimensions.
(2) Magnifies it.
(3)Displays it by using indicating devices, by which
comparison can be made with some standard value.

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Mechanical Comparator
It is self controlled and no power or any other form of
energy is required.
It employs mechanical means for magnifying the small
movement of the measuring stylus. The movement is due
to the difference between the standard and the actual
dimension being checked.
The method for magnifying the small stylus movement in
all the mechanical comparators is by means of levers,
gear trains or combination of these. They are available of
different make and each has it's own characteristic.
The various types of mechanical comparators are dial
indicator, Reed type Comparator, sigma comparator,
Johansson mikrokator.

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Mechanical Comparator
To check the height of the job H2 ,with the standard job of
height H1.
Initially, the comparator is adjusted to zero on its dial with
a standard job in position as shown in Figure(a). The
reading H1is taken with the help of a plunger. Then the
standard job is replaced by the work-piece to be checked
and the reading H2 is taken.
If H1and H2 are different, then the change of the
dimension will be shown on the dial of the comparator.

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Mechanical Comparator

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Johansson Mikrokator
This comparator was developed by C.F. Johansson.
Principle:
It works on the principle that when a tension is applied to
the twisted strip, this causes the strip to untwist resulting
in rotation of pointer which attached at centre of twisted
strip.

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Johansson Mikrokator
Construction and working :
It consist of a twisted metal strip. Any pull on the strip
causes the centre of the strip to rotate. A very light pointer
made of glass is attached to the centre of the twisted
metal strip.

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Johansson Mikrokator
The measuring plunger is on the slit washer and transmits
its motion through the bell crank lever to the twisted metal
strip. The other end of the twisted metal strip is fastened
to the cantilever strip.
When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward
direction the bell crank lever turns to the right hand side.
This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a
change in its length by making it further untwist. Hence
the pointer at the centre rotates by some amount.
Thus small movement of plunger is magnify in to large
rotation of pointer.

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Reed Type Mechanical Comparator
Fig. shows the reed type mechanical comparator.
The reed mechanism is frictionless device for magnifying
small motions of spindle.
It consists of a fixed block A which is rigidly fastened to
the case and floating block B, which carries the plunger
and is connected horizontally to the fixed block A by reeds
C.
A vertical reed D is attached to each block with upper
ends joined together.
These vertical reeds are shown in the figure by letter D.
Beyond this joint extends a pointer or target.

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Reed Type Mechanical Comparator

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Reed Type Mechanical Comparator
A linear motion of plunger moves the free block B
vertically causes rotation of pointer .
So, a small displacement produces a large angular
movement.

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Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:

1. They do not require any external source of energy.

2. These are cheaper and portable.

3. These are of robust construction and compact design.

4. The simple linear scales are easy to read.

5. These are unaffected by variations due to external
source of energy such air, electricity.

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Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparator:

1. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.

2. Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.

3. There are number of moving parts which create problems
due to friction, and ultimately the accuracy is less.

4. The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to

high inertia.

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Mechanical - Optical Comparator
In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the
plunger movement is magnified: first by mechanical
system and then by optical system.
Optical comparators are based on the principle of
projection of image.

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Mechanical - Optical Comparator

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Mechanical - Optical Comparator

The movement of the plunger is magnified by the

mechanical system using a pivoted lever.
From the Figure the mechanical magnification = l2 / l1.
High optical magnification is possible with a small
movement of the mirror.
optical magnification = 2 l4/l3
It is multiplied by 2, because if mirror is tilted by an angle
, then image will be tilted by 2 .
Thus overall magnification of this system = 2 (l2/l1) (l4/l3)

These Comparators have less number of moving parts,

due to this there is less wear and hence less friction.

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Advantages of Mechanical - Optical Comparator

it have less number of moving parts, due to this there is

less wear and less friction ,hence a higher accuracy.
It has very high magnification.
Optical lever is weightless.

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disadvantages of Mechanical-Optical Comparator

An electrical supply is necessary.

Projection type instruments occupy large space and they
are expensive.
When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is
essential to use the instrument to a dark room in order to
take the readings easily.

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Electrical Comparators
Electrical comparators are also known as electro-
mechanical measuring systems as these employ an
electro- mechanical device which converts a mechanical
displacement into electrical signal.
Fig. shows a block diagram of an electro- mechanical
measuring system.

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Electrical Comparators
The movement at the probe tip actuates inductance
transducer which is supplied with an alternating current
from the oscillator.
The transducer converts this movement into an electrical
signal which is then amplified and fed via an oscillator to
the demodulator. The current in D.C. form, then passes to
the meter and the probe tip movement is displayed as a
linear measurement.

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Advantages of Electrical Comparators:
Less no. of moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy
over long periods.
It is possible to have a very high magnification and the
same instrument may have two or more magnifications.
Thus the same instrument can be used for various
ranges.
The mechanism carrying the pointer is very light and not
sensitive to vibrations.
The measuring unit can be made very small and it is not
necessary that the indicating instrument be close to the
measuring unit, rather it can be remote also.

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Disadvantages of Electrical Comparators:
It requires an external agency to operate i.e., the A.C.
electrical supply.
Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift
and alter the calibration.
This is usually more expensive than mechanical
instrument.

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Pneumatic Comparators
Pneumatic comparators are the widely used precision
instruments which use the principle of obstructed nozzle.

The schematic diagram of a pneumatic comparator is

shown in Figure.

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Pneumatic Comparators
It has two orifices O1 and O2 with diameter d1 and d2
respectively.
Through O1, air is supplied at a constant pressure, Ps ,
which is the pressure of the source.

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Pneumatic Comparators
Thus, the area of orifice O2 is variable and depends upon
the displacement of the work piece x.
The intermediate pressure Pi between the fixed orifice
and the outlet is dependent upon the source pressure Ps,
and the pressure drops across the two orifices O1 and O2.
Since area A2 of the orifice O2 varies with displacement x,
the intermediate pressure, Pi, also changes with change
in x. Thus, change of pressure is a function of
displacement x and hence can be used as a measure of
dimension x.

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Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators
The gauging member does not come into contact with the
part to be measured and hence no wear takes place on
the gauging member.
The method is self cleaning due to continuous flow of air
through the jets and this makes the method ideal to be
used on shop floor.
It has usually very small number of moving parts ,Thus
the accuracy is more due to less friction and wear.

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Disadvantages of Pneumatic Comparators
The accuracy may be influenced by the surface
roughness of the component being checked.
Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs.
Auxiliary equipments such as air filters, pressure gauges
and regulators are needed.
The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather
elaborate for many industrial applications.

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