Radiography Interpretation

Part 1
 Fluoroscopy

X-ray
unit

Fluorescent Thick,dark Thin, light

screen
Lead
glass
Fluorescent light

mirror
 Fluoroscopy
Advantages Disadvantages

• Fast inspection • No permanent record

technique • Hazardous to operator
• No film processing • Limited to thickness
required (Good for thin
• Can permit viewing in material)
all direction
 Duties of a radiographic interpreter
■ Mask of any unwanted light from viewer
■ Ensure the background light is subdued
■ Check the radiograph for correct identification
■ Assess the radiographs density
■ Calculate the radiographs sensitivity
■ Check the radiograph for any artifacts
■ Assess the radiograph for any defects present
■ State the action to be taken, acceptable,
rejectable or repair
 Principles of Radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
through which it is travelling
Thinner areas and materials of a less density
show as darker areas on the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater
density show as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and
composites
 Industrial Radiography

X - Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms
 X-Ray Radiography
X-Rays are produced form electrical equipment referred to as x-ray tubes
or x-ray tube heads
 Gamma Ray Radiography
Gamma rays are produced from artificial isotopes, example Cobalt 60,
Iridium 192.
 Radiographic Inspection

Source

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

10fe16

Radiographic film Test specimen

 The basis of radiography
Source

High dense
Low dense
discontinuity
discontinuity

Lighter Film
region on
radiograph
Darker
region on
radiograph
 The basis of radiography
Source

Thin part

Thick
part

Film

Lighter Darker
Region on region on
radiograph radiograph
 Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10-9
Old: Angstroms (Å) 1Å = 10-10 m

RADIATION EXPOSURE: New: Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)

Old: Roentgen

ABSORBED DOSE: New: Gray (Gy)

1 Gy = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rad 100 rads = 1 Gy

BIOLOGICAL EFFECT: New: Sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rem 100 rems = 1 Sv
Prefixes Definition Symbol
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
102 Hecto h
10 Deca da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 Micro µ
10-9 Nano n
10-12 pico p
 Inverse Square Law

D1
I1 D 2 2
=
I1 I2 D 1 2

D2

I2
Example: 1 An x-ray tube emits 40 msv/h of radiation at an
auto-monitored distance of 1m. What is the
distance where safety barriers are to be erected
at 7.5 msv/h?

Example: 2 An emergency is when an unshielded isotope

emits 6.4 µsv/h at the barriers at 45m distance.
What will be the exposure at 1m?

Example: 3 Determine the intensity of radiation at a

distance of 1m if a survey meter reveals 0.02
mr/h at 35m.

Example: 4 The intensity of radiation on a survey meter is

333msv/h at 15m. What distance is between
the meter and radiation source if the meter
shows 75 msv/h?
 Inverse Square Law Answers
Question 1 I1 = 40 msv/h D1 = 1m
I2 = 7.5msv/h D2 = ?

D2 = I 1 X D12 D2 = 40 X 12
I2 7 .5
Answer D2 = 2.31m
Question 2 I1 = 6.4 µsv/h D1 = 45m
I2 = ? D2 = 1m
I2 = D12 X I1
2
I2 = 45 2
X 6.4
D2 12
Answer I2 = 12960µsv/h
Question 3 I1 = ? D1 = 1m
I2 = 0.02 mr/h D2 = 35m
I 1 = D2 2 X I2 I1 = 352 X 0.02
2 2

D1 1
Answer I1 = 24.5 mr/h
Question 4 I1 = 333 msv/h D1 = 15m
I2 = 75 msv/h D2 = ?

D2 = I1 X D12 D2 = 333 X 152

I2 75
Answer D2 = 31.6 m
Advantages of Radiography
• Permanent record

• Internal flaws

• Can be used on most materials

• Direct image of flaws

• Real - time imaging

 Disadvantages of Radiography

• Health hazard
• Sensitive to defect orientation
• Access to both sides required
• Limited by material thickness
• Skilled interpretation required
• Relatively slow
• High capital outlay and running costs
 What is radiation?
• Waves of energy associated with
electrical and magnetic fields
• Electrical and magnetic fields at right
angles to each other and to the
direction of propagation

Electromagnetic Radiation
 Properties of x-ray and gamma rays

■ They have no effect on the human sense

■ They have adverse effects on the body

■ They penetrate matter

■ They travel at the speed of light

■ They obey the inverse square law

■ They may be scattered

■ They affect photographic emulsion

■ They may be refracted and diffracted

Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
(Quantum theory)

Shortening Wavelength
 Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
V
λ=
f
V = 2.997 x10 m / sec
8

E = hf
Planks constant = 6.626196 x 10-34J.s.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Industrial
radiography
Electric
Microwaves Waves
Ultra
Infra red TV
violet

10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1cm 102 104 106 108

Wavelength
 Ionization

Electrons Oxygen atom

Protons & Neutrons 8+ 8 +ve protons
8 -ve electrons
no overall charge
 Ionization

Electrons Oxygen atom

Protons & Neutrons 8+ 8 +ve protons
8 -ve electrons
no overall charge
Ionising Radiation

8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge
8+

Negative oxygen ion

 Ionization

Electrons Oxygen atom

Protons & Neutrons 8+ 8 +ve protons
8 -ve electrons
no overall charge
Ionising Radiation

Displaced electron

8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge 8+

8+ 8 +ve protons
9 -ve electrons
1 -ve charge
Negative oxygen ion
Positive oxygen ion
Atomic structure
N SHELL

M SHELL

L SHELL

K SHELL

Proton + ve charge

Neutron no charge

Electron –ve charge

 Atomic structure
ELECTRONS: -Ve Charge

NEUTRONS: No Charge

PROTONS: +Ve Charge

Example of a Helium Atom

Atomic number: 2
Atomic mass number: 4
The atom carries no overall charge.
 Atomic Structure
• Protons : +ve charge
• Neutrons : No electrical charge
• Electrons : -ve charge ,
mass 1/1836 of a proton
• Number protons = Number electrons
 Atomic Structure

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

The number of protons this dictates the element
type.

ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A)

The number of protons + neutrons, this can be
altered in order to make artificial isotopes.
Radiography

X-ray production
 X-Ray Production

• X-rays are produced when

electrons strike a positively charged
nucleus
• The kinetic energy of the electrons
is converted into electromagnetic
radiation (X-rays)
X – ray tube
X-Ray Tube (Evacuated Glass Bulb)
(97-99% heat)
(1-3% X-ray)
Tungsten Target (70o)
Focussing cup Filament

Cathode - ve Anode + ve

Electron Stream
Milliamps
X-ray beam
Intensity
Homogeneous
(Quantity)
wavelength
Kilovolts wavelength (Quality)
 Atomic structure of Tungsten ( Anode)

99 % will changed into

Lower velocity heat and light
(Bremsstrahlung)

Higher velocity

Higher velocity

Polychromatic ray

Characteristic X-ray
Continuous X-ray
(Monochromatic ray)
ray
(Industrial radiography)
 X-RAY PRODUCTION
• CATHODE
1. PROCESS THAT MAKE THE ELECTRON
BOILS OUT FROM THE HOT WIRE IS
CALLED THERMIONIC EMISSION
2. IT IS CONTROLLED BY THE MILIAMP
CONTROL WHICH SUPPLY CURRENT
TO THE CATHODE
3. INCREASE THE CURRENT, WILL
INCREASE THE INTENSITY OF THE
ELECTRON STREAM AND HENCE THE
RADIATION
• ANODE
1. INCLINED TUNGSTEN TARGET
EMBEDDED IN A LARGE LUMP OF
COPPER
2. USED AS A TARGET FOR THE
ELECTRON TO HIT,AND THE
IMPACT WILL PRODUCE X-RAYS
AND HEAT.
3. VOLTAGE THAT SUPPLY TO THE
ANODE IS CONTROLED BY THE kV
CONTROL.
4. THE HIGHER THE VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE TUBE,THE HIGHER
THE VELOCITY OF THE
ELECTRONS AND THE GREATER
THE PENETRATING POWER
 X-Ray Production
Kilovoltage

Increase Decrease

Increase electron speed Decrease electron speed

Radiation wavelength Radiation wavelength

shortens increases

Decrease penetration
Increase penetration
 X-Ray Production
Amperage

Increase Decrease

Increase filament temperature Decrease filament temperature

Increase number of electrons Decrease number of electrons

Increase amount of radiation Decrease amount of radiation

Reduce the exposure time Increases the exposure time

 The Conservation of Energy
The law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
although it is possible to change it to one form to another.
In the case of x-rays a stream of quickly moving particles (usually
electrons) strike a target material (usually tungsten) and are brought
to a rapid halt. A portion of this energy is give off as packets of
electromagnetic radiation called photons. The photons can vary in
energy which is determined by

1. The original energy of the electrons.

2. How rapid the electrons are decelerated.

3. The atomic number of the target material.

This process is known as bremsstrahlung

 A.C. Circuit

The effect of a.c. on the direction of current

flow.
In an x-ray tube x-rays can only be
produced when the current is travelling
from the cathode (-ve) to the anode (+ve).
Half Wave rectified Circuit

In the half wave rectified circuit the anode

is only positive every half cycle, therefore
the electrons will only flow from the
filament during that time. The x-rays are
only produced during the positive half
cycle.
 Constant Potential Circuit

The introduction of separate rectifiers into

the circuit, produces a constant electron
flow from the cathode to anode and
therefore a relatively constant output of x-
rays. This circuit is know as a Greinacher
circuit.
 X-Ray Set Circuits
Constant Potential Half Wave Rectified
Advantages Advantages
•High output/unit time •More commonly used on site
•100% duty cycle •More robust
•Shorter exposure times •Portable/lighter
Disadvantages Disadvantages
•Bulky equipment •Low output/unit time
•Expensive •Longer exposure times
•Low duty cycle 50%
 Determination of focal spot size

X- RAY TUBE

FOCAL SPOT 250 mm

LEAD SHEET ~ 4 mm W.T.

0.25 mm Dia HOLE
FOCAL SPOT SIZE
DETERMINED BY 250 mm
Image Dimension - (2 X Hole Size)
4 mm - (2 X 0.25) = 3.5 mm
FILM AND CASSETTE

LARGEST IMAGE DEVELOPED FILM

DIMENSION e.g. 4mm

Measurement of the longest linear dimension of the image

 Radiography

Gamma ray production

 Production Of Artificial Isotopes

Inserted Removed

Stable cobalt - 59 Neutron Flux Unstable cobalt - 60

Each Co 59 Nucleus Each Co 60 Nucleus

contains :27 protons contains :27 protons

32 neutrons 33 neutrons

Nuclear Reactor

Only a relatively few Co 59 atoms become Co 60 depending on the

time in the reactor and the magnitude of the neutron flux
 Radioactive Isotopes

Some isotopes are stable others are not

Unstable isotopes transform into another
element and in so doing emit radiation in
3 forms
 Alpha (particles)
 Beta (particles)
 Gamma (rays)
 Isotopes Specific Activity
ALPHA PARTICLES
2 NEUTRONS AND 2 PROTONS
VERY LOW PENETRATING
ISOTOPE

RADIOACTIVE AREAS
THE GREATER THE
AMOUNT THE GREATER
THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY

NEUTRONS
THERMAL & FAST
BETA PARTICLES
EJECTED AS ELECTRONS
-Ve CHARGE GAMMA RAYS
EMMITTED AFTER BETA
OR ALPHA PARTICLES.
Photons of energy they are
not particles.
 Rate of Decay
• Curie 3.7 x 1010 disintegration / second
• Becquerel 1 disintegration / second
• 1 Curie = 37 Gbq
• Half Life Time taken for the activity of
an isotope to reduce by a half
• Cobalt 60 5.3 years
• Iridium 192 74 days
• Ytterbium 169 32 days
• Selenium 75 120 days
 Wavelengths
Intensity Mev.

Co 60
1.17 to1.3 Mev
Relative

Ir 192
0.3 to 0.47 Mev
Yb 169
0.06 to 0.2 Mev

Long Wavelength λ Short

Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave

length is not of a fixed nature. A number of frequencies
will be emitted for most sources.
Descrite wavelengths gives Gamma an advantage to give a
better latitude.
 Scattering process
1. Rayleigh Scattering

θ
Soft radiation

The primary photon is scattered by the orbital electrons

without removing any electrons . The photon is deflected but
does not change the energy
 Absorption process
1. Photoelectric Process

Low energy level - Below 0.3 Mev

Ejected electron
Low Energy X-ray (total energy beam
absorbed by this
electron)
 Absorption
process
1. Compton Effect
Energy level-(0.3 - 3.0 Mev) Ejected electron
photon
X-ray

Scattered radiation

Moderate Energy ( 0.3 - 3.0 Mev)

Most commonly happen in radiography industry
using Ir 192
 Absorption
process
3. Pair Production
Energy level (Above 3.0 Mev)
Thick material using Co 60
Ejected electron
High Energy X-ray

Scattered
radiation

Ejected positron
 ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
 Rayleigh scattering
Occurs at very low energies
In this process, photons are
deflected by outer electrons
with no change in energy
 Compton effect
Occurs at higher energies
The interaction of a photon of
energy by an electron resulting
in the ejection of an electron
from its atom with a certain
amount of energy. The
remaining energy is scattered
this is known as COMPTON
SCATTER
 Photoelectric effect
Occurs at low energies
The complete absorption of a
photon of energy by an atom with
the emission of an electron
 Pair production
Occurs at very high energies
The simultaneous formation of an
positron (+ve electron) and a
electron as a result of the
interaction of a photon with the
nucleus of the atom. The particles
are soon afterwards destroyed
thus creating photons this is
known as
Annihilation
 Gamma ray VS X-ray
Advantages Disadvantages
•No electrical or water supplies •Poorer quality radiographs
needed
•Exposure times can be longer
•Equipment smaller and lighter
(More portable) •Sources need replacing

•Equipment simpler and more robust •Radiation cannot be switched

off
•More easily accessed
•Poorer geometric unsharpness
•Less scatter
•Remote handling necessary
•Equipment initially less costly

•Greater penetrating power