Dosen pengampu: I Putu Krishna Wijaya, ST., M.Eng Geological Structures
Sideling Hill, I-68,
Washington County, MD Today we will consider the structures in rocks produced by deformation. Deformation Processes Wherever you see sedimentary rocks that are not lying horizontally, these rocks have been deformed in some large-scale process.
It is important to try to imagine the scale of the entire structure to which a single area or outcrop belongs. Deformation As a result of plate tectonics, the crust is constantly under stress. Rocks respond to stress by deforming. Deformation may be brittle, in which rocks will tend to break, or ductile, in which they tend to flow or bend.
To an extent, brittle behavior characterizes the upper part
of the crust, since it is relatively cold. However, if the rate at which a material is stressed is small enough, even rigid materials may deform ductilely. Response to Stress Temperature has a role in the response of a material to stress, but so does composition. In general rocks with more water in them and which contain more platy minerals (micas, clays) are more prone to ductile deformation. That is why sedimentary rocks in the shallow crust frequently form fold belts, large provinces dominated by folded strata. Types of Stress There are three principal types of stress (as are demonstrated on large scale by the three plate tectonic boundaries): compressive, tensional and shear.
Compression occurs when material is squeezed, when
bodies are pushed straight together. Tension (or extension) is when material is pulled apart. Shear deformation occurs as two bodies slide past one another. Types of Stress Traces of Stress in Rocks
By measuring objects of know
undeformed dimensions, we can estimate the nature and magnitude of deformation. Traces of Stress in Rocks
Orientation of slaty cleavage is another tool to estimate the
nature and magnitude of stress on a rock. Brittle Deformation Rocks that respond brittlely to stress break. Where a rock breaks and no movement takes place is called a fracture.
Fractures in the shallow crust are
commonly evidenced by quartz veins, where fluid once flowed and later crystallized. Faults A fracture along which movement takes place is a fault.
acute angle = obtuse angle =
hanging wall foot wall
We classify faults based on direction of movement of
individual blocks, with reference to a horizontal plane. Dip-Slip Faults
Reverse faults form as a result of compressional stresses, which
dominate in convergent plate tectonic margins. Thrust faults can be crustal-scale, as shown in the lower diagram. Normal Faults
Normal faulting is a result of tension (or extension).
Extension is the dominant stress at divergent plate boundaries. The most classic normal fault valleys are present in the axes of the mid-ocean ridges. Surface Expressions of Dip-Slip Faults
How a fault is manifested on the surface depends on which is
greater: the rate of fault movement or the rate of erosion. Faults that have not penetrated to the Earths surface are blind faultsparticularly dangerous from an earthquake hazard standpoint, since they are hard to detect and map out. Strike-Slip Faults -- primary movement is horizontal, not vertical, meaning no old rocks are brought up or moved down relative to the Earths surface
Strike-slip faults result from shear stress, like what we see at transform plate margins. The San Andreas system is a big strike-slip fault Identify the Fault Identify the Fault Reverse Fault
older rocks moved up
in hanging wall Identify the Faults Normal Faults
older rocks moved
down in hanging walls Ductile Deformation The most obvious imprint of ductile deformation on rocks are folds. Although rocks may be brittle at the Earths surface, ductile features like folding occur partially because of elevated temperature and pressure at depth in the Earth, partially because the stresses are applied at very small rates: the same rocks that respond brittlely when stress is applied rapidly will tend to deform ductilely when the same stress is applied over a long time. Folds are generally produced by compression, and so characterize convergent plate tectonic situations. Types of Folds
How do you know which
way is up? Plunging Folds
In nature, folded areas commonly contain folds whose axes are
not horizontal: they plunge. These make the familiar fold shapes on topographic maps and satellite images. Plunging Folds
The Valley and Ridge Province of the central Pennsylvania
Appalachians is a classic example of folding. Scales of Folding
Folding can take place on highly
variable scales. How do the scales of these two folds compare? Scales of Folding
1 meter 1000x different 1 millimeter Soft Sediment Deformation Not all deformation has to occur very deep in the Earth. Sediments frequently show familiar fold structures. These come from loading of material on water-rich layers of sediment. Soft Sediment Deformation Here, layers of basaltic ash were deposited on a shallow lake shore. Later material loaded on top of it caused the wet ash layer to slump and contort. 15,000 yr later this is barely lithified into a sedimentary rock, yet it preserves spectacular folds. Brittle + Ductile Features (small scale) A vein such as this may have formed in a fracture, but subsequent ductile deformation caused its wiggly appearance. Composite Brittle + Ductile Features
Many deformation structures are composite in nature. Fold belts
p.359 Isostasy Isostasy is the gravitational balance of masses at the Earths surface.
The balance is based on the contrast in density of the materials
involved. The crust is lower density than the mantle. Icebergs and Isostasy Why did the Titanic sink? Partly to blame is isostasy: sea ice is much more massive below the water line than above. What ripped into the Titanics hull was probably not visible from on deck. Isostasy Due to the low density of the crust relative to the mantle, mountain belts will have deep roots. These protrude into the upper mantle and provide an isostatic counterbalance to the mass above the mantle surface.
This hypothesis has been further tested using seismology, which
reveals thick crustal roots beneath mountain belts. Isostatic Adjustments Sediment is less dense than consolidated rock, but still provides significant mass when removed from one area and deposited in another. Sediment Loading
Sediment erosion and
loading will result in epeirogenic uplift and This model is consistent with what subsidence. we see in the modern Mississippi delta, for example. Other forms of Crustal Loading
Ice is less dense than
rock, but pile enough up on the crust, and it will have an isostatic impact. Glacial Rebound
Most of Scandinavia is experiencing rapid uplift, as a result of
the removal of glacial ice over the past dozen millennia. Crust Goes Up... Crust Goes Down Formation of a divergent plate boundary will cause regional uplift, as will the impinging of a hot mantle plume on the base of the continental crust.
Ocean crust cools and
sinks as it ages and diverges from the spreading center, causing epeirogenic subsidence. p.499 There are Pacific Northwest Mountains and there are Mountains Sierra Nevada or Rockies Basin and Mountains can Range
result from a western variety of different Appalachians forces and processes.
Himalayas or central Appalachians p.495 The Constant Battle Between Tectonic Uplift and Erosion
p.370 Tugas 1 A
B Berdasarkan Gambar 1, deliniasi tiap lapisan batuan sesuai sayatan A-B dan beri nomor urutnya dari perlapisan tua ke muda!
