Sewerage

SEWERAGE

Sewerage refers to the collection,

treatment and disposal of liquid waste.
Sewerage works or sewage works
include all the physical structures required
for that collection, treatment, and disposal.
Sewage is the liquid waste conveyed by
a sewer and may include domestic and
industrial discharges as well as storm
sewage, infiltration, and inflow.
SEWERAGE

Industrial waste includes the liquid

discharges from industrial process such as
manufacturing and food processing.
Storm sewage is the flow derived from
rainfall events and deliberately introduced
into sewer intended for its conveyance.
Infiltration is the water which enters the
sewers from the ground through leaks
Inflow is the water which enters the
TYPES OF SEWERS

1. Common sewer serves all abutting

properties.
2. Sanitary sewer carries all sanitary
sewage and is designed to exclude storm
sewage, infiltration, and inflow.
3. Storm sewer carries storm sewage and
any other waste which may be discharged
into the streets or onto the surface of the
ground.
TYPES OF SEWERS

7. Submain sewer collects flow from one

or more laterals as well as house sewer.
8. Main or Trunk Sewer collects flow from
several submains as well as laterals and
house sewers.
9. Intercepting sewer intersects other
sewers to separate the dry weather flow
from storm water flow which they may
carry.
 Sewage treatment includes any process
which may be used to favorably modify the
characteristics of the wastewater.

Sewage disposal refers to the discharge

of liquid wastes to the environment.
Normally, but not always, disposal implies
some degree of treatment prior to
discharge.
SEWER MATERIAL

PRECAST SEWER MATERIAL

1.)Clay Pipe made of clay or shale that
has been ground, wetted, molded, dreid and
burned in a kiln. The burning produces a
fusion or vitrification of the clay, making it
very hard and dense and resistant to
biological and chemical attack.
SEWER MATERIAL

2. Concrete Pipe is sometimes used for

sanitary sewers in locations where grades,
temperatures, and sewage characteristics
prevent corrosion. It is also used for storm

Storm drains an application in which it is

generally preferable to clay pipe.
Allconcrete pipe made in sizes larger than
610mm (24 in) is reinforced, and reinforced
can also be obtained in sizes as small as
SEWER MATERIAL
OTHER FABRICATED SEWER
MATERIAL
1. Plastic truss pipe consist of an extruded
shell with integral diagonal stiffeners
between the inner and outer membranes.
The spaces between the inner and outer
surfaces is filled with the lightweight
concrete, which increases the pipe stiffness.
OTHER FABRICATED SEWER
MATERIAL
2. Solid wall Plastic Pipe is manufactured
of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in diameters from
100 380 mm (4 to 15). The smaller sizes
are commonly used for household plumbing,
but may also be applied in vacuum and
pressurized system.
3. Corrugated Metal Pipe is sometimes
used for storm sewers, although its primary
application is in highway drainage. The pipe
may be galvanized or provided with other
DESIGN OF SEWER SYSTEMS

1. Preliminary Investigation
2. Detailed Design Requirements
3. Design Principles
4. Sanitary Sewer Design
5. Storm Sewer Design
6. Major System Design
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS

Cost Estimates
provide a basis for cost estimates which
are used to evaluate the feasibility of a
project.
Detailed Maps
Preliminary Design
based on estimated flows, approximate
ground contours, the location of the streets
or sewer easements, and the locations to
DETAILED DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS
Ground Survey
should be conducted to establish the
location of present obstacles to the
proposed design.
the presence of rock or other subsurface
conditions in the construction area will have
a significant effect on costs, hence soil
borings or soundings are desirable.
Preparation of construction drawing
DETAILED DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS
Tentative Layout
made by locating lines along the streets or
utility easements with arrows showing the
direction of flow normally in the direction of
the ground slope.
location of sewers in the backlot utility
easements will minimize damage to
pavement but makes access to somewhat
more difficult.
DETAILED DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS
Vertical Profile
prepared for each sewer line at a
horizontal scale of 1:500 to 1:1000 and a
vertical scale about 10 times greater.
Profile
assists in the design and is used as a
basis of construction drawings.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Sewers present some special problems

sincce they are normally closed, but are
seldom designed to flow full.
Velocity/velocities
in sewers are selected
with the goal of keeping the solids in the
sewage in suspension or at least in traction
Sanitary sewers should be sized to provide
a velocity of at least 0.6m/s (2ft/s).
In most sewer design procedures, the
SANITARY SEWER DESIGN

The full capacity of circular pipes may be

calculated directly from Mannings
equation.
Once a pipe diameter and slope have
been tentatively selected, one must
determine the actual depth and velocity
which will exist at design flow.
The area of flow of a partially full circular
pipe is given by:
STORM SEWER DESIGN

The flow which the storm sewers must be

designed to carry is very much dependent
to te design of sewers themselves.
Two Components of Storm Drainage
Systems:
1. Minor System
2. Major System
STORM SEWER DESIGN

Methods that can reduce runoff and thereby

reduce both the cost of flood protection and
likelihood of the flood damage:
1. Discharge of roof drains to grassed
surfaces rather than pavement.
2. Contour grading, which maintains natural
drainage patterns.
3. Porous pavements of asphalt, interlocking
paving blocks or gravel.
MAJOR SYSTEM DESIGN

The major system, together with the minor

system, is expected to be able to prevent
flooding of houses and other valuable
property resulting from storms of relatively
low frequency.
Flow calculations for the major system
must be based on sound hydrologic and
hydraulic principles- the SCS technique,
the unit hydrograph method, or continuous
simulation, models, all of which may be
SEWER APPURTENANCES

it is a material of a sewer for different uses

such as inspection and cleaning
Sewer systems require a variety of
appurtenances to insure proper operation.
These include manholes, inlets, inverted
siphons, and pumping stations.
MANHOLES

Definition of Manhole
a small covered opening in a floor,
pavement, or other surface to allow a person
to enter, especially an opening in a city
street leading to a sewer.
Manholes provide access to sewers for
inspection and cleaning and are located at
changes in direction, changes in pipe size,
substantial changes in grade and at intervals
of 90 to 150m in straight lines. Sewers larger
MANHOLES

Materials Used for the Construction

Gray iron casting AASHTO M 105
Mild to medium-strength carbon steel
castings for general application AASHTO M
103
Structural steel AASHTO M 183
Galvanizing, where specified for these
units, shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M 111
Design of Manholes

The design of manholes is fairly well

standardized in most cities. A typical brick
manhole, has a cast iron frame and cover
with a 500 to 600 mm opening. The frame
rests on brickwork which is corbeled to
form a cylinder from 1 to 1.25m in
diameter which extends downward to the
lowest sewer. The walls are typically
200mm thick for depths up to 4m and
increase by 100mm for each additional 2m
Design of Manholes

The bottom of the manhole is normal

concrete, sloping toward an open channel
which is an extension of the lowest sewer.
The open channel is sometimes lined with
half-round or split sections of sewer pipe.
The channel should be sufficiently well-
defined and deep enough to prevent
sewerage from spreading over the bottom
of the manhole. Changes in direction in
the lower sewer are made by deflecting
Design of Manholes

A precast reinforced-concrete manhole,

with the exception of the tapered section,
is fabricated of tongue-and-groove
concrete-pipe. It is a common technique of
matching the grades of sewers without
requiring all the lines to be placed at the
same elevation.
INLETS

Definition of Inlets
Inlets or Storm Drain is designed
to drain excess rain and ground
water from impervious surfaces such as
paved streets, car parks, parking lots,
footpaths, sidewalks, and roofs.
Design of Standard Sewer Cleanout
Inletsare structures through which the
storm water enters the sewers. Their design
INLETS
INLETS

Street intersection showing inlets and

branch lines from inlets to main sewer.
Arrows show direction of surface flow.
INVERTED SIPHONS

Definition of Inverted Siphon

It is a section of sewer which is dropped
below the hydraulic grade in order to avoid
an obstacle such as railway or highway cut,
a subway, or a stream.
Such sewers will flow full and will be under
some pressure, hence they must be
designed to resist low internal pressures as
well as external loads. Since sewerage flow
is subject to large variations, a single pipe
INVERTED SIPHONS
Design of Inverted Siphon

an inverted siphon is designed to avoid an

obstacle. The three pipes are designed to
carry, respectively, the minimum flow and
average flow, and the difference between
PUMPING OF SEWAGE

There are many communities in which it is

possible to convey all the sewage to a
central treatment location or point of
discharge in only a gravity system. In
other areas with flat terrain, more than one
drainage area, low-lying sections, or
similar complications, pumping may be
required. Pumping may also be required at
or within sewage treatment plants, in the
basements of buildings which are above
SEWER CONSTRUCTION AND
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of Line and Grade
In order to ensure that a sewerage system
will function as intended, it must be
constructed in accordance with the plans
and specifications. It is particularly important
that the line and grade of each sewer be
carefully established and maintained so that
self-cleansing velocities will be obtained.
Excavation Technique

The type of excavation which the

contractor will encounter should be
indicated on the drawings, and may be
divided into several classes. Solid rock
includes solid rock in its original bed, or in
well-defined ledges removable only by
blasting, and boulders over 0.25 m^3 (8
ft^3) in volume. Hardpan includes
materials such as disintegrated limestone,
shale, soapstone, fire clay, cemented
Excavation Technique

Excavation for sewers should be done

with mechanical equipment wherever
possible. Specialized equipment for
excavating trenches is available which
employs continuous chain drives carrying
bucket that cut the soil, bring it to the
surface.
The trench should be excavated a
minimum of 200 mm (8in) below the final
grade so that suitable bedding material
Sheeting and Bracing

Trenches in unstable materials require

sheeting and bracing to prevent caving or
collapse of side walls. Trenches more than
1.5m (5ft) deep and 2.5m (8ft) in length
should be held by shoring or bracing or
sloped to the angle of repose of the soil.
Sheeting includes the support materials in
contact with wall excavation. Bracing
refers to crosspieces extending from one
side to the other. Rangers are structural
Sheeting and Bracing

Box sheeting employs horizontal sheeting

and vertical rangers as shown in fig 17-4.
In relatively stable material, there may be
gap between the boards. The size
requirements for sheeting, rangers, and
braces are similar to those for poling
Sheeting and Bracing

Vertical sheeting is the strongest and most

elaborate method employed in trench
construction and is used in soft soils and
in those where groundwater may be
encountered. The trench is first excavated
as far as possible without the danger of
bank failure.
As the sheeting is driven downward, the
excavation proceeds with additional
rangers and cross braces being placed at
Dewatering of Excavation

When excavations extend below the

groundwater table, water will flow into the
opening. If the subsurface strata are
sufficiently permeable, the velocity of flow
may be sufficiently great to fluidize the soil,
creating aquick condition. This can
undermine the sheeting and cause failure
of the trench.
Quick condition in the trench can be
prevented by lowering the ground water
Pipe Laying and Jointing

Before the pipe is lowered into the trench,

the grade of the bedding material should
be checked with levels or a device of the
sort illustrated in fig 17-1. The grade of the
sewer should be held to within 10mm of
that shown on the plans.
The pipe should be inspected to ensure
tahat it is sound and that the ends are
undamaged. The pipe sections are placed
on line and grade in the bottom of the
Maintenance of Sewers

Maintenance of sewer systems depends

not only on proper design and construction
and the availability of a competent work
force, but also on protection of the system
against damaging materials which may be
discharged by the public.
Most communities have enacted sewer
ordinances which regulate the materials
that may be discharged to the sewers.
These ordinances may also require that
Maintenance of Sewers

Grease is the most common cause of

blockage in household sewers, and larger
Sewer repairs and connections

Damage to sewers caused by corrosion,

surface loads, or settlement should be
repaired without delay. Damaged sections
should be located as closely as possible
by inspection and rodding from manholes.
A broken section of clay or concrete pipe
can be chipped out of the line while the
flow is diverted by pumping from manhole
to manhole.
New connections to existing sewers
Sewer gases

Explosions in sewers are not common and

workers have been killed by breathing
toxic gases produced by biological activity
or industrial discharges.
The most common cause of explosions in
sewers is gasolinewhich has leaked from
corroded subsurface storage tanks or
been discharged deliberately by garages.
Sewage Disposal

Disposal Techniques
By reuse
By discharge to surface waters
By injection or percolation to ground
waters
By evaporation to the atmosphere
Sewage Disposal

In nearly all cases the water must first be

treated to remove the build of the
contaminants, either as a matter of
engineering necessity or to meet the
requirements of state and federal
environmental regulations.
In order to determine the degree of
treatment which will be required, it is
necessary to consider the effects of the
various pollutants on the environment to
Effects of Stream Discharge

Organic matter which enters the stream is

metabolized by bacteria and converted
into ammonia, nitrates, sulfates, carbon
dioxide, etc., which are used, in turn, by
plants and algae to produce
carbohydrates and oxygen. The plant life
is fed upon by microscopic animals which
serve as a food source for crustacean,
insects, worms, and fish. Some of the
animals feed on the waste of others, thus
Effects of Stream Discharge

Water quality standards are based on the

maintenance of minimum dissolved oxygen
concentrations, nontoxic concentrations of
specific chemical species, and a near-
neutral pH. When a healthy environment is
maintained in a stream, its natural
assimilative capacity can be used to assist
in waste treatment without adversely
affecting downstream users. Those of which
are the following:
Effects of Stream Discharge

Bottom Deposits and non-point-source

runoff provide diffuse sources of
contaminants which can cause water
quality degradation.
Sunlight acts as a disinfectant and
stimulates the growth of algae.
Temperature affects the solubility of
oxygen in water, the rate of bacterial
activity, and the rate at which gases are
transferred to and from the water.
Lake and Ocean Discharge

Self-purification phenomena in lakes,

estuaries, and the ocean are similar to
those which operate in streams.
Since currents are normally less
pronounced in larger bodies of water,
there is more opportunity for
sedimentation to occur in the immediate
vicinity of the discharge.
The cyclic reversal of flow provided by
tidal action in estuaries may also result in
Lake and Ocean Discharge

Saturation concentration of dissolved

oxygen in water tends to decrease with
increasing salt content. In seawater the
saturation concentration is approximately
8- percent of that in fresh water.
The density of saline waters is greater
than that of freshwater, hence sewage
may tend to spread, without mixing, over
the surface.
Submarine Outfalls
Land Disposal and Treatment

1. Slow rate systems - also called irrigation

systems, since the application techniques
are normally identical to those employed in
agricultural irrigation.
2. Rapid infiltration - may be used either for
waste disposal, groundwater recharge, or
both. The water is applied at relatively high
rates and percolates, either vertically or
horizontally, away from the application
zone.
Total Retention Systems

In some climates it is possible to dispose

of waste water by evaporation. Most so-
called total retention systems, however,
discharge a portion of the flow to the soil.
Selection of a Disposal System

There is no single system which is best

suited to the disposal of all waste waters.
The engineer must investigate each
system which is physically practicable to
determine the cheapest technique that is
environmentally and socially acceptable.
Stream disposal - the commonest
technique in the United States and is
generally cheapest, provided water quality
standards do not require advanced
Selection of a Disposal System

Evaporation - is practicable only in limited

areas, and in those areas the water might
be more profitably used to recharge
ground water or irrigate crops. The
designer in such a case must
weigh the cost of the more expensive land
disposal system against the value of the
benefit obtained.