CHAPTER 5

Particulates

NONI/FSG UITM PAHANG

SUBTOPICS;
Common Types Of Particulate Matter
Selected Hazardous Particulates

Classification

Particle Shape And Size

Formation Mechanism Of PM

Particulate Deposition Mechanisms

Haze, Visibility And Health Implications

Stokes law and Terminal Settling Velocity

2
 WHAT IS PARTICULATE MATTER?

There are things floating around in the air.

Most of them, you cannot even see. They are a kind
of air pollution called particles or particulate
matter. In fact, particulate matter may be the air
pollutant that most commonly affects people's
health.

3
SOME COMMON TYPES OF PARTICULATE
MATTER

1. AerosolsAny tiny solid or liquid particle

2. DustsSolid particles from grinding or crushing
3. Mist, fogLiquid particles; Mists: Droplets of liquid
created by breaking liquid into small particles
4. Soot, ashSolid particles, mostly carbon from
combustion
5. SmogAny air pollutant; originally meant smoke plus
fog

mist fog
smog
 SOME COMMON TYPES OF
PARTICULATE MATTER
6. Smoke
Products of incomplete combustion of organic materials
7. Biological agents
Include living and nonliving agents that
maybe allergenic, toxigenic or infectious

5
SOME COMMON TYPES OF PARTICULATE
MATTER
8. Crystalline, Structural, Isotopic
Nature
Silica dust
free crystalline silica
Diatomaceous earth
Fumed silica

Silica gel

6
 SELECTED HAZARDOUS PARTICULATES

Asbestos

Asbestosis, cancer
Beryllium

Berylliosis, cancer
Bacteria

Humidifier fever
Cotton dust
Byssinosis
7
 SELECTED HAZARDOUS PARTICULATES
Diesel exhaust
Lung cancer
Lead & compounds
CNS infection
Nickel
Nasal cancer
Pesticides
CNS infection, cancer
Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Manganese
Cancer, CNS infection, pneumoconiosis
8
 CLASSIFICATION
Classified based on the mechanism of their formation
Primary particulate
- emitted directly as particles
- Solid/liquid particles (dust, soot, fly ash, droplets, etc.)
- Can be mixture of many compounds/elements
- Mostly PM10 and above
- High PM2.5 levels from combustion by-products

9
 Secondary Particulates

formed from precursor gases in the atmosphere via

gas-to particle conversion or condensable
vapors/secondary reactions
High PM2.5 levels
Eg: Sulfuric acid, nitrates, sulfates, bi-sulfates
SO2 from combustion of sulfur containing fuels
generates sulfate containing fine particles
Some of the SO2 is oxidized in the atmosphere to form
sulfuric acid, H2SO4
If ammonia is present, H2SO4 is neutralized to form
ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 or ammonium
bisulfate, (NH4)HSO4
Nitrogen oxides emissions also react in the
atmosphere to form nitric acid, which may also be
neutralized by ammonia forming ammonium nitrate
10
 classified by their physical size; the size is from a few
nanometers(nm) to tens of micrometers (m) in diameter
PM 10
- particulate < 10 m in diameter
- generally referred to as coarse particles
PM 2.5
- particulate < 2.5 m in diameter
- generally referred to as fine particles
Total Suspended Particle (TSP)
- mass concentration of particles less than 40 to 50
m in diameter

11
 ACIDIC PM
If not enough ammonia is available in the atmosphere to
fully neutralize the sulfuric acid and nitric acid, particulate
matter will be acidic

Acidity is one of the causes of human health effects

associated with exposure to fine particles

Acidity is known to have effects on ecosystems.

In Texas, the primary source of acidity in particles is

sulfuric acid, although nitric acid, hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and organic acids may also be present

The primary species responsible for neutralizing acidity is

ammonia, although sodium, primarily derived from sea
salt, and potassium, can also be important.
12
 PARTICLE SHAPE
Particles emitted from air pollution sources and formed by
natural processes have a number of different shapes and
densities

13
 PARTICLE SHAPE
Asbestos
Fibrous shape
Length and width play a role in permission exposure limit (PEL) and
threshold limit value (TLV)
Silica has three dimensional crystalline shape or
structure
Particles can also have shapes including
Uneven pellet shapes
Rock-like shapes
Round
Flat
Oblong

14
 PARTICULATE SIZE
Aerodynamic (equivalent) diameter

Diameter of a unit-density sphere having the same

gravitational-settling velocity as the particle in question

Aerodynamic diameter takes into account the shape,

roughness, and aerodynamic drag of the particle.

Used for movement of particles through a gas

15
 Particulate Size
The aerodynamic diameter is the diameter of a spherical
particle having a density of 1 gm/cm3 that has the same
inertial properties [(i.e terminal settling velocity (discussed
later)] in the gas as the particle of interest.

The aerodynamic diameter for all particles greater than 0.5

micrometer can be approximated using the following
equation.

16
AERODYNAMIC DIAMETER OF PARTICLES

17
CONVERSELY SOME PARTICLES THAT APPEAR TO BE VISUALLY
SIMILAR CAN HAVE SOMEWHAT DIFFERENT AERODYNAMIC
DIAMETERS AS ILLUSTRATED BELOW

18
 Particle density affects the motion of a particle
through a fluid and is taken into account in
Equation 1.
The Stokes diameter for a particle is the
diameter of the sphere that has the same
density and settling velocity as the particle. It is
based on the aerodynamic drag force caused by
the difference in velocity of the particle and the
surrounding fluid.
For smooth, spherical particles, the Stoke
diameter is identical to physical or actual
diameter

19
 PARTICULATE MATTER: SIZE

Concentrations of PM are usually expressed in mass per

unit volume (g/m3)

Fine (<2.5 g/m3) or coarse (10 g/m3)

Atmospheric aerosols consist of solid or liquid particles

ranging in size from a few tens of Angstroms to several
millimeters

20
 SIZE OF PARTICLE
Toxicity of some particles is heavily
dependent upon size
Equivalent aerodynamic diameter is what
Industrial Hygienist is concerned about
Predicts how the particle will behave when
inhaled and where it will be deposited in
lungs
PM10 are particles of 10 m which are
respirable.
2.5 m are very respirable.

21
 PARTICULATE SIZE CATEGORIES
The EPA has defined four terms for categorizing particles of
different sizes.
Table below (Table 1) displays the EPA terminology along
with the corresponding particle sizes.

22
- VISUAL COMPARISON OF THE SIZE OF A FINE PARTICLE (1.0 ), COARSE
PARTICLE (10 ), AND A SUPER COARSE PARTICLE (100 ).
- THERE IS A SUBSTANTIAL DIFFERENCE IN SIZE BETWEEN THESE
PARTICLES,
WHICH ARE CONSIDERED MODERATE-TO-LARGE IN AIR POLLUTION 23
CONTROL.
PARTICULATE SIZE CATEGORIES
The EPA also categorizes particles as follows:
Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSP)
PM10
PM2.5
Particles less than 0.1
Condensable Particulate Matter

24
 PARTICULATE SIZE CATEGORIES
TSP (total suspended particulate matter)
- Particles ranging in size from 0.1 m to about 30 m in diameter
- includes a broad range of particle sizes including fine, coarse, and
supercoarse particles.

PM10
- all particles having an aerodynamic diameter of less than or equal to
10 m
- collected with 50% efficiency by a PM10 sampling collection device
- regulated as a specific type of "pollutant" because this size range is
considered respirable
- particles less than approximately 10 m can penetrate into the lower
respiratory tract
- mechanically generated
25
 PARTICULATE SIZE CATEGORIES
PM2.5:
- include all particles having an aerodynamic diameter of less than or
equal
to 2.5 m.
- collected with 50% efficiency by a PM2.5 sampling collection device.
- settle quite slowly in the atmosphere relative to coarse and
supercoarse
particles.
- Fine particle
- Combustion generated
- Secondary particles

Particles less than 0.1 m

- composed of as little as 20 to 50 molecules clustered together which
exist
in a stable form.
- Combustion and metallurgical sources generated
26
- tend to agglomerate rapidly to yield particles in the > 0.1 m range
 PARTICULATE SIZE CATEGORIES
Condensable Particulate Matter

- Particulate matter that forms from condensing gases or vapors.

- Also forms by chemical reactions as well as by physical phenomena.
- Usually formed from material that is not particulate matter at stack
conditions but which condenses and/or reacts upon cooling and
dilution in the ambient air to form particulate matter.
- The formation occurs within a few seconds after discharge from the
stack.

27
 THESE PARTICLES GET AROUND..

Which particles do you think travel farther?

PM10 (big) OR PM2.5 (small)

How far do you think PM10 particles can travel?

100 feet or 25 miles or 500 miles

How far do you think PM2.5 particles can travel?

100 feet or 25 miles or 500 miles

28
 ANSWER
The smaller particles are lighter and they stay in
the air longer and travel farther. PM10 (big)
particles can stay in the air for minutes or hours
while PM2.5 (small) particles can stay in the air
for days or weeks. And travel? PM10 particles
can travel as little as a hundred yards or as much
as 30 miles. PM2.5 particles go even farther;
many hundreds of miles

29
30
SOURCES OF PM10/PM2.5 EMISSIONS
Power Plants
Construction

Mining

Metals

Natural Sources

Agriculture, Forestry (20% of PM10 nationwide)

Fugitive Dust (68% of PM10 nationwide)

31
DISTRIBUTION OF ATMOSPHERIC
PARTICULATE MATTER

32
 Frequency % particulate by
mass

33
 PARTICULATE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

A histogram is one of the simplest ways to

display a particle size distribution.
It is a particle frequency distribution that
shows the percentage of particles found in
each size range.
Frequency can be plotted (on the Y-axis) by
number count, surface area, or mass.
The median, arithmetic mean, and mode help
characterize the arithmetic mass distribution
(see Figure 2).

34
PARTICULATE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
median particle size (mass
median particle diameter) is the
particle diameter that divides the
frequency distribution in half; 50%
has particles with a larger
diameter, 50% has particles with a
smaller diameter.
arithmetic mean diameter,
simply termed the mean diameter,
is the arithmetic average particle
diameter of the distribution.
mode represents the value that
occurs most frequently in a
distribution.
- In particle size distributions, the
mode is the particle diameter that
occurs most frequently.

35
 PARTICULATE SIZE DETERMINATION
Workers are not exposed to single particles but
rather to large masses of particles suspended in
air (particle clouds). Particle clouds may be:

Monodisperse
Composed of airborne particulates with a single size or a small
range of sizes
e.g. fog from boiling acid; welding fumes
Polydisperse
Composed of airborne particulates of many different sizes
e.g. sand blasting; paint spraying

36
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PARTICULATE
Chemical composition of particulate matter is strongly
related with its source.
Major components are sea-salt, sulphate, nitrate,
ammonium, organic material, crustal species, trace
metals and water.
In the coarse fraction, usually found crustal species
(silicon, magnesium, calcium, aluminum), sodium
chloride (from sea-spray), primary biological elements
(pollens, spores, insects debris), coal fly ash.
The fine particles are mostly composed of secondary
aerosols produced by gas-to-particle conversion (sulfate,
nitrate, organic compounds, metals like lead, iron,
copper, nickel, and elemental carbon). 37
 As atmosphere is continuously moving and changing,
the chemical composition of a particle is evolve during
its atmospheric residence time of a few days.
There are 2 mixing state distinguished:

Internal Mixture External Mixture

particles from different sources the various chemical components

remain separated. are mixed within a single
particle.
not attached to each others
The more aged the air mass is,
the more degree of internal
mixing will increase

38
 FORMATION MECHANISM OF PM
The range of particle sizes formed in a process is
largely dependent on the types of particle formation
mechanisms present.
Most important particle formation mechanisms in air
pollution sources include :
Physical attrition/mechanical dispersion
Combustion particle burnout
Homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation
Droplet evaporation

39
 PHYSICAL ATTRITION
Occurs when two surfaces rub together.
The compositions and densities of these particles are
identical to the parent materials.
The particles range in size from less than 10 m to
almost 1000 m.
Eg : the grinding of a metal rod on a grinding wheel
yields small particles that break off from both surfaces.

40
 COMBUSTION PARTICLE BURNOUT
Occurs when fuel particles are injected into the hot
furnace area of a combustion process.
In this mechanism, most of the organic compounds in
the fuel are vaporized and oxidized in the gas stream.
Fuel particles become smaller as the volatile matter
leaves and they are quickly reduced to ash and the
slow burning char.
As combustion progresses, the fuel particles are
reduced to ash and char particles that are primarily
in the 1 - 100 m range.

41
 HOMOGENOUS & HETEROGENEOUS
NUCLEATION
Involve the conversion of vapor phase materials to a
particulate form.
Generally create particles that are very small, often
between 0.1 and 1.0 m.
In both cases, the vapor-containing gas streams must cool
to the temp at which nucleation can occur (dew point).
There are two main categories of vapor phase material
that can nucleate in air pollution source gas streams:
organic compounds
inorganic metals and metal compounds
42
 Homogeneous nucleation:
formation of new particles composed almost entirely of the
vapor phase material.
involves only one compound.

Heterogeneous nucleation:
accumulation of material on the surfaces of existing particles.
the resulting particle consists of more than one compound.
contributes to the formation of particle distributions that have
quite different chemical compositions in different size ranges.
facilitates a phenomenon called enrichment of particles in
the submicrometer size range.

43
 DROPLET EVAPORATION
Caused by air pollution control systems that use solids-
containing water recycled from wet scrubbers to cool the
gas streams.
The water streams are atomized during injection into the
hot gas streams and, as these small droplets evaporate to
dryness, the suspended and dissolved solids are released
as small particles.
Probably creates particles that range in size from 0.1 to
20 m.
All of these particles must then be collected in the
downstream air pollution control systems.

44
 SUMMARY FOR FORMATION
MECHANISM
The collection efficiency of different types of particulate
control equipment is heavily dependent on particle
size.
In most industrial processes, more than one particle
formation mechanism is at work. Thus, industrially
generated particles usually cover a broad size range.
Figure below: Particle size range for formation
mechanisms.

45
 TRANSFORMATION PROCESS FROM
GASEOUS TO PARTICLES.

Settling process
process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a
liquid and form a sediment.
particles that experience a force, either due to gravity or
centrifugal motion will tend to move in a uniform manner
in the direction exerted by that force.
Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the
liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the
settling process.

46
 Nucleation
The formation of a bubble/crystal from a liquid
Onset of a phase transition in a small region.
Normally occurs at nucleation sites on surfaces
contacting the liquid or vapor.
Most nucleation processes are physical, rather than
chemical, but a few exceptions do exist.
Creation of liquid droplets in saturated vapor is also
characterized by nucleation (cloud condensation nuclei)

47
 Condensation
The change in matters/substances to denser phase
(gas/vapor to liquid).
Occurs when a vapor is cooled to a liquid.
Also can occur if vapor is compressed to liquid.
Combination of cooling & compression.

Coagulation
Process which an aerosol collide each other.
They undergo coalescence or aggregation.
Change in the aerosol size & distribution function

48
49
 PARTICLE DEPOSITION
Describe how particles are deposited onto surfaces
The mechanisms help determine what method to use
to capture particles, hence to design air pollution
control equipment
Depend on characteristics of particles such as
stickiness, explosiveness, wet/dry, resistivity, sizes, etc

50
 PARTICULATE DEPOSITION
MECHANISMS

1. Inertial impaction
2. Interception
3. Sedimentation (settling)
4. Electrostatic attraction
5. Diffusion (Brownian movement)

51
 PARTICULATE DEPOSITION
Inertial impaction
Impaction occurs when a particle traveling in the air
stream and passing around a fiber, deviates from the
air stream (due to particle inertia) and collides with a
fiber.
not efficient for particles less than 0.3 micrometers due to
their low inertia
Function of particle velocity and mass
Follows Newtons Law
a mass in uniform motion tends to remain in motion unless

acted upon by outside force.

Cause the particulate to impact when direction of stream is

changed.
Impaction is directly proportional to the density of the particle,
square of its diameter, and the velocity of the moving aerosol 52
 Two primary factors affect the probability of an
impaction occurring:
aerodynamic particle size and

the difference in velocity between the particle and the

obstacle
Larger particles are collected more easily than smaller
particles due to their greater inertia.
Collection efficiency increases as the difference in
velocity between the particle in the gas stream and the
obstacle (or target) increases.

53
 PARTICULATE DEPOSITION
Interception
Interception occurs when a large particle, because of its size,
collides with a fiber in the filter that the air stream is passing
through.
Particle follows air stream fairly closely but contacts surface of lung
and stick.
The mechanism of collection of particles by interception depends
on size of the particles rather than on its mass or inertia.
The particles, follow a gas stream line around the droplet and
interception occurs as they pass half the distance of
particle diameter (D) away from the droplet surface.

54
 PARTICULATE DEPOSITION
Brownian Diffusion
very small particles wiggle around randomly and settle out when
they bump on a surface.
Very small & slow moving particles favors deposition by diffusion.
becomes the dominant collection mechanism for particles less than
0.3 m and is especially significant for particles in the 0.01 to 0.1
m size range.
Very small particles in a gas stream deflect slightly when gas
molecules strike them.
These small particles are captured when they impact a target (e.g.
liquid droplet) as a result of this random movement.

55
 PARTICULATE DEPOSITION
Electrostatic Attraction
Accomplished by establishing a strong electrical field and
creating unipolar ions.
The particles passing through the electrical field are charged by
the ions being driven along the electrical field lines.
Several parameters dictate the effectiveness of electrostatic
attraction including the particle size, gas flow rate, and
resistivity.
The strength of the electrical charges imposed on the particles
by both mechanisms is particle size dependent.
Charged particles are attracted to opposite charge.
Not important in lung deposition but in sampling and collection

56
MECHANISMS OF PARTICLE DEPOSITION IN THE
LUNG

Inertial impactions
Interception

Sedimentation

Diffusion

57
 PARTICLE DEPOSITION IN THE LUNG
Particle Respiratory Deposition Deposition
size rate process site

Coarse High Impaction Large airways

Large and smaller

Coarse Low Sedimentation
airways

Large And smaller

airways
Fine High Diffusion

Fine Low Diffusion Alveoli 58

 HAZE, VISIBILITY AND
HEALTH IMPLICATIONS

59
 HAZE AND VISIBILITY
Particulate pollution (mostly small particles)
The international definition of haze is a visibility from 2 km to 5
km.
Haze occurs when fine particles in the atmosphere scatter light,
limiting the distance that people can see, and obscuring the color
and clarity of their view.

Natural sources windblown dust, and soot from wildfires.

Manmade sources motor vehicles, electric utility and

industrial fuel burning, and
manufacturing operations

Some haze-causing particles are directly emitted to the air.

Others are formed when gases emitted to the air form particles as
they are carried many miles from the source of the pollutants. 60
 Interaction of Visible
Light and Particles

The effect of this interaction

depends on the nature and
size of the particles present.

General rule: Particles

efficiently scatter light with
a wavelength that is about
the same size as the particle
diameter.

61
 Historically, visibility has been defined as the
greatest distance at which an observer can just see a
black object viewed against the horizon sky.
Visibility involves more than specifying how light is
absorbed and scattered by the atmosphere.
Three basic forms of visibility impairment :
regional haze
defined as visibility impairment caused by the emission of air
pollutants from numerous sources located over a wide geographic
area.
urban haze (brown cloud)
comes from the scattering of light due to various types of
pollution from a wide range of sources found in large cities.
plume blight
commonly refers to pollution coming from the stack or chimney of
a stationary source (e.g: electrical generating station or copper
smelting operation).
62
 PM COMPOSITION AND EFFECTS
Composition Effects
Ultrafine particles cause for concern
Transition metals cytotoxic and inflammatory
properties

Sulfuric, nitric and other acids health impacts

organic compounds Irritants or mutagenic

Biogenic particles pollen, infectious, or cause allergies
plant and animal detritus,
and other materials of
biological origin

Sulfate and nitrate salts toxic

Peroxides cellular injury
63
Soot elemental carbon tissue irritation
 HEALTH EFFECTS
Primarily health risk enters respiratory system;
lodges in alveoli
Aggravated asthma
Coughing, painful breathing
Chronic Bronchitis
Decreased lung function
Premature death

64
65
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TOXICITY OF
INHALED SUBSTANCES
Inhalable particulate mass
A particle which is deposited anywhere in the human
respiratory tract
Thoracic particulate mass
A particle which is deposited anywhere within the lung
airways and the gas-exchange region of the human
respiratory tract
Respirable particulate
A particle which is deposited in the gas-exchange region of
the human respiratory tract

66
67
 GRAVITATIONAL SETTLING
Particles in still air have two forces acting on them :
a gravitational force downward
the air resistance (or drag) force upward.
When particles begin to fall, they quickly reach a terminal
settling velocity, which represents the constant velocity of a
falling particle when the gravitational force downward is
balanced by the air resistance (or drag) force upward.
The terminal settling velocity can usually be expressed using
Equation 3

68
WHAT IS MEANT BY SETTLING VELOCITY
OF A PARTICLE?
Small particles grow into larger particles via
collisions and coagulation and eventually settles
out.
The settling velocity v in wind free air is
determined by the balance of 2 forces : frictional
force or drag force & gravitational force
The frictional force on a particle of diameter (d)
moving with steady speed (v) through a fluid of
density (f) and viscosity () is 3 v d
The opposing gravitational force on the particle of
diameter (d),density (p) is given by mg= d3(p- f)g
6
69
continue..
FORCES ACTING ON A SPHERICAL PARTICLE
Fd

Resistance/Drag force, Fd
Fd = 3 v dp

Buoyant force= f d3g

6
mg
Gravity force= mg= p d3g
6

70
 TERMINAL VELOCITY
Gravitational force - buoyant force frictional force (air
resistance)
p d3g - f d3g - Fd
6 6

When the particle moves at a steady velocity vt, there is no

acceleration, i.e no net force, ma=0, then
Fd = d3(p- f)g (i)
6

Using Stokes law , Fd = 3vtd .(ii)

Terminal velocity, vt = g d2 (p- f), (iii)

18
t = 18h
gd2(p- f),

i.e time taken to fall through height ,h 71

VT = GD2 (P- F) t = 18h__
18 gd2 (p- f)

Vt = terminal velocity (m/s)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
d = particle diameter (m)
p = density of particle (kg/m3)
f = density of fluid/air
= viscosity of air
t = time taken to fall (s)
72
h = height (m)
 EXAMPLES
1. Estimate the settling velocity of sand (density = 26.5 kg/m3)
with a diameter of 0.21mm. Assume the sand is
approximately spherical.
(given : density of air = 1.29 kg/m3, viscosity of air = 1.71 x
10-5 kg/m.s)
Solution:
p = 26.5 kg/m3 f = 1.29 kg/m3
d = 0.21x 1/1000 m g = 9.81 m/s2
= 2.1 x 10-4 m = 1.71 x 10-5 kg/m.s
By using :
vt = gd2 (p- f)
18
vt = 9.81(2.1 x 10-4)2 (26.5 -1.29 )
18(1.71 x 10-5) 73

vt = 0.035 m/s
2. Assume particles have a density of 24.0 kg/m3 and are
being released by a 100 m smokestack. How long does it
take a 25m particle to settle to the ground?
(given : density of air = 1.29 kg/m3, viscosity of air = 1.71 x
10-5 kg/m.s)

solution :
p = 24.0 kg/m3 h = 100 m
d = 25m = 1.71 x 10-5 kg/m.s
= 2.5 x 10-5 m g = 9.81 m/s2
f = 1.29 kg/m3

by using :

t = 18h__
gd2 (p- f)
t = 18(1.71 x 10-5 )(100 )__
9.81(2.5 x 10-5 )2 (24.0 - 1.29) 74

t = 2.21 x 10-5 s
QUIZ
75
 Use the data below to calculate the terminal settling
velocities of spherical particles having the specified
Stokes diameters and Cunningham slip correction
Gas viscosity = 1.8 x 10-4
gm/cm.s)
Gas temperature = 293 K
Particle density = 1 gm/cm3

i. Stokes particle diameter = 0.25 m,

Cunningham slip correction, C = 1.73
ii. Stokes particle diameter = 25 m,
Cunningham slip correction, C = 1.0

(8M) 76