1 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
Chapter 11 Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation represents ones distinct
sense of a natural preference and consistent attraction to sexual and romantic partners of a particular sex in the presence of clear alternatives. Sexual orientation is viewed as a continuum with heterosexuality at one end, homosexuality at the other end and bisexuality in the middle. Kinseys 0 6 scale; ratings of 2,3,4 were identified as bisexual. 2 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Prevalence of homosexuality and bisexuality
The gay/lesbian/bisexual community generally
cites a 10% combined figure. Upon review of over 50 years of research your textbook author concludes that about 3-5% of adult American men and about 1% of adult American women are homosexual. Bisexuals are not included in these figures. Prevalence is much higher in gay friendly large urban areas.
3 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
Defining sexual orientation
Sexual orientation has 3 distinct components:
Affective (feelings of attraction, desire, love) Behavioral Self-identity Female sexuality is often more complex than male sexuality; it is not uncommon for lesbian and bisexual women to change their self- identity; womens sexual orientation has been described as more fluid than mens. 4 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Bisexuality Bisexuality adult sexual orientation toward both men and women; behavior may focus on one sex more than the other but attractions persist. Sexual self-identity can change throughout adolescence and adulthood as part of the continuing development of the self. Bisexuality > homosexuality is the most common Researchers as well as the gay/lesbian/ bisexual community now agree that bisexuality is a legitimate classification of sexual orientation, distinct from both heterosexuality and homosexuality. 5 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Sexual orientation, gender identity and gender roles
Homosexuals and bisexuals generally have a
gender identity consistent with their anatomical sex, just as is the case with heterosexuals. Whether or not a person conforms to gender stereotypes does not accurately predict their sexual orientation. Homosexual men are attracted to men; not just feminine men. They may be quite masculine. The stereotype of the butch lesbian does not apply to all or even most lesbian women. 6 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Origins of sexual orientation
Neither heterosexuality nor homosexuality nor
bisexuality has a single cause. Heterosexuality is the norm because the vast majority of people are heterosexual; other orientations are a normal part of human diversity. Biological, psychological and socio-cultural influences interact to produce a persons adult sexual orientation.
7 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory
Recall Freuds Victorian biases.
Belief that sexual orientation depended upon how the Oedipal complex was resolved Fixation or regression because of a domineering, rejecting mother would lead a boy to turn to men for love > male homosexuality An absent father and cold, rejecting mother would lead to female homosexuality Interesting, popular theory but no reliable evidence has been found to support it. 8 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Other psychosocial explanations
Social learning theory rewarding experiences
with same-sex or bad experiences with other- sex individuals early in life. Although some homosexuals have this childhood background, so do many heterosexuals. Most lesbians have had pleasurable sexual relations with men but still prefer sexual relations with women. Boys from cultures in which adolescent same-sex activity is encouraged, there is no greater ratio of adult homosexuality. 9 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Is childhood gender nonconformity an accurate predictor of adult orientation?
Childhood nonconformity is often but not
always associated with adult homosexuality. Even cases of extreme nonconformity (e.g., very effeminate boys) cannot absolutely predict future sexual orientation. And many adult male homosexuals showed typical masculine gender role behavior in childhood. Tomboy behavior is quite common in girls but only about 3% are lesbian or bisexual. 10 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Genetic factors
Concordance rates for identical twins is about
52% but only about 22% in fraternal twins. Certain DNA patterns on the X chromosome (the genes a man inherits from his mother) appear to be associated with male homosexuality. No such pattern has yet been identified for lesbians. 50-60% of a persons tendency toward one sexual orientation of the other appears to be genetic. 11 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Anatomical factors
Differences between heterosexual and
homosexual men are found in a small region of the hypothalamus as well as a major bundle of nerves connecting the two halves of the brain. These parts of the homosexual mens brains were more similar to brains of heterosexual women than they are to brains of heterosexual men. Are we born with these brain differences or do our brains change as we respond to life experiences? 12 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Effects of the prenatal environment
The mothers immune system changes with
each birth and may affect her younger sons. Homosexual men have more older brothers than heterosexual men; each additional older brother increases the probability that the younger brother will be homosexual by 33%. There is no evidence that sexual activity or other influences of the older brothers is the cause of this phenomenon. 13 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Hormones in the prenatal environment
Animal studies reveal that prenatal treatment
with hormones will result in homosexual behavior. Hypothalamus of male homosexuals respond to estrogen in the same way as heterosexual women; the hypothalamus appears feminine. Other hormonal effects: Homosexuals are more likely to be left-handed Lesbian finger length studies similar to males 14 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall How can anatomy be normal but orientation be variant?
Ellis and Ames claim that the critical period for
development of sexual orientation comes between 2nd and 5th months of pregnancy; others claim that hormones have an effect in the first year or two following birth. The genitals have been differentiated since weeks 7-12. Maternal stress, genetic-hormonal factors, drugs, and immune system functioning may all play a role in the biological component of orientation. 15 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Conclusions about the origins of sexual orientation
Both biological and social influences contribute
to the development of sexual orientation, whether heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual. Biological factors predispose an individual to a particular sexual orientation. Today there is stronger evidence for the biological contribution in men than in women; the sexual fluidity of bisexual women emphasizes the importance of social context in womens relationships. 16 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Historical and cross-cultural attitudes about homosexuality Pederasty an accepted practice in some parts of ancient Greece; sexual behavior between adult men and adolescent boys as a natural part of his social education. Because it was accepted in society, the boys seem not to have been harmed by this practice and there are many artifacts created by both the young men and their mentors attesting to their deep love and commitment to one another. Heterosexual marriage and having children was still every adult male citizens duty to the society. Adult men were also free to have female lovers. Ultimately, male pleasure was the rule of the day.
17 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
Ancient Hebrew historical perspectives
Some Hebrew groups, prior to the 7th century
B.C. practiced same-sex religious rituals, which were later banned during a later movement to unify the Hebrew nation, hence the strong, anti-homosexuality language in Leviticus. Female homosexuality was dealt with less harshly because there was no spillage of the sacred seed.
18 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
Christian historical perspectives
Early Christians, following Roman tradition,
were initially tolerant of same-sex behaviors, including pederasty. Later, St. Thomas Aquinas (13th century) taught that the only purpose of sex was reproduction; therefore homosexuality was unnatural. Not until the 17th century did same-sex acts become considered criminal.
19 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
More recent history Late 1800s homosexuality become considered a sign of mental illness. By the early 1900s intolerance of homosexuality reached an all-time high. 1957 Evelyn Hookers research found that there are no psychiatric differences between heterosexual and homosexual men. 1973 American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses. The Catholic church no longer considers homosexual orientation (desire) sinful but continues to condemn same-sex behaviors. 20 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Homosexuality in other cultures
A review of 294 cultures found that in the 59
that had a clear opinion, 69% were supportive and 31% condemned homosexuality. Psychiatrists in China, India, Brazil, Belarus and Poland still consider it a mental illness. Sambian and Azande cultures expect same- sex behavior for adolescent boys but expect heterosexual marriage for adults. Only the passive male partner is considered homosexual in Mexico, Brazil, Turkey, Greece. 21 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Increasing acceptance of homosexuality
2000 46% of Americans view homosexuality
as sinful, down from 54% in 1998. About 80% favor equal housing and employment protection for gays and lesbians. 2003 U.S. Supreme Court rules against state laws that prohibit the sexual expressions of homosexuality. 2003 2/3 of Fortune 500 companies offer benefits to same-sex domestic partners.
22 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
Sexual prejudice today
90% of gay men have been verbally abused or
threatened (1989). Most mental health problems among gays and lesbians can be attributed to minority stress. Homophobia term first used in 1960s implying that negative attitudes toward homosexuals reflect irrational fears. Sexual prejudice refers to negative attitudes and behaviors toward homosexuals but without implication as to the origin of these feelings. 23 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Who exhibits sexual prejudice?
Greater among men than women and most
negative feelings are toward gays and bisexuals rather than lesbians. Most often in men with stereotypic male gender-role attitudes, authoritarians, religious fundamentalists, and those with little education. Are men symbolically affirming their own manhood when they attack gays?
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Coming Out A gradual process
Admitting to oneself that one has a
homosexual or bisexual orientation. Many recognize their difference in childhood. Getting to know other homo/bisexuals. Telling close family and friends. Many hide their orientation for many years out of fear of rejection. Openness about ones homo/bisexuality. No longer having to hide ones own truth. 25 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall What is the homosexual lifestyle?
Sexual prejudice leads many to relocate to gay
friendly metropolitan areas to feel safe, accepted. Relationship types are similar to heterosexuals Close-coupled committed partnership Open-coupled primary partnership with additional sexual partners Functional single, independent, multiple partners Dysfunctional sexually active but unhappy Asexual single, having few sexual partners
26 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall
Homosexual relationships
No differences found in relationship satisfaction
between straight vs. gay cohabitators. Sex is a relatively small part of a relationship, just as it is in heterosexual relationships. Men, whether homosexual or heterosexual, do not place as high a value on monogamy as do women; gay men have more opportunity to enjoy a large number of partners. Matching masculine/feminine partners is just a stereotype. Nobody has to be the woman. 27 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Sexual Behaviors
When it comes to sexual behaviors, differences are
greater between men and women than between heterosexuals and homosexuals. Lesbians manual stimulation of the genitals and oral-genital sex are preferred; very few use dildoes. Gay men manual stimulation of the genitals and oral-genital sex are the most common behaviors. Although 70-80% engage in anal intercourse at least sometimes, it is the least common behavior practiced on a regular basis for most gay men. 28 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Homosexuals and marriage (1)
In the past, most homosexuals either stayed
single or married heterosexually to suit societal standards. Having to hide their orientation caused significant anxiety and stress. Some individuals still do so, although more are feeling free to come out in mid-life. Homosexual couples cohabit without the legal rights and benefits of marriage afforded heterosexual citizens. A few churches will bless gay unions. 29 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Homosexuals and marriage (2)
Some states (e.g., Vermont) are beginning to
grant civil union status to same-sex couples. Some state supreme courts have ruled that it is unconstitutional to deny marriage rights to same-sex couples/citizens. 2003 37 states have banned same-sex marriages and more plan to do so. 2004 The Bush administration seeks an amendment to the U.S. constitution to bar same-sex marriages. 30 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Homosexuals as parents
Five percent of partnered gays and 22% of
partnered lesbians have children currently living in their homes. Fears of abuse Sexual abuse is most commonly committed by heterosexuals. Children raised by openly homosexual parents do not show any greater risk of gender identity conflicts, greater incidence of homosexuality or problems with emotional or social adjustment than children raised by heterosexual parents. 31 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Media portrayals
Until relatively recently gay/lesbian actors had
to remain closeted; some still remain closeted. Until recently when homosexual were portrayed only as stereotypes. Newer movies and television shows are including more gay/lesbian characters with increasing variety and depth. Visit the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) website for more information: www.glaad.org 32 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Can (should) sexual orientation be changed? About half of Americans believe that homosexuals could change if they really tried. The large majority of homosexuals feel comfortable and do not wish to change their orientation. Attempts to cure homosexuality are conducted by fundamentalist religious groups; success rates have been low and indicate behavior changes but not orientation changes. The American Psychological Association calls these reparative therapies harmful; failing to cure anything but instead creating greater self- loathing than before. 33 King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e 2005 by Prentice Hall Questions for heterosexuals
When did you first realize you were straight?
Did situations in your childhood lead you to become straight? Is your sexual orientation something you chose or is it just a natural part of who you are? If your sexual orientation were the minority orientation would you try to change to better fit in with societys expectations?
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Putting Scandinavian Equality To The Test: An Experimental Evaluation of Gender Stereotyping of Political Candidates in A Sample of Norwegian Voters by Richard E. Matland