CHAPTER 2

PRECIPITATION
 Learning Objectives
The objectives of this unit are to:

Define precipitation, its forms and types.

Illustrate techniques for estimating point

and area precipitation.
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students should be
able to:

Estimate point and areal precipitation

amounts from gauge data.
 Introduction
Precipitation is a major component of the hydrologic
cycle.
-any form of water that falls to the Earth's surface

- defined as any product of the condensation of

atmospheric water vapor (solid or liquid) that is
deposited on the earths surface, its form and quantity
thus being influenced by the action of other climatic
factors such as wind, temperature and atmospheric
pressure
- many different forms including rain, storm, snow, hail,
drizzle and sleet.
 Cont. Precipitation

Precipitation is important because it helps maintain the

atmospheric balance.

Without precipitation, all of the land on the planet

would be desert. Precipitation helps farmers grow crops
and provides a fresh water supply for us to drink.

Precipitation can also be damaging. Too much rain and

snow can cause severe flooding and lots of traffic
accidents. Hail can damage crops and cars. Freezing
rain and sleet can destroy trees and power lines.
Formation of precipitation

Droplets become heavy

enough to fall (~ 0.1 mm)

Many droplets decrease in

size by evaporation Some droplets
increase in size by
Droplets increase in size by impact and
condensation aggregation

Larger drops break up

( 3- 5 mm)

Droplets form by nucleation -

condensing of vapor on tiny
solid particles called
aerosols (0.001 10 mm)

Water vapor Rain drops

(0.1 3 mm)
 Classification of precipitation
(1) Snow Complex ice crystals. A snowflake consists of agglomerated
ice crystals. The average water content of snow is assumed to
be about 10% of an equal volume of water.

(2) Hail Balls of ice that are about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter.
Their specific gravity is about 0.7 to 0.9. Thus hailstones
have the potential for agricultural and other property damage.
(3) Sleet Results from the freezing of raindrops and is usually a
combination of snow and rain.
(4) Rain Consists of liquid water drops of a size 0.5 mm to about 7
mm in diameter.
(5) Drizzle Very small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water drops
that appear to float while following air currents. Drizzle drops
are considered to be less than 0.5 millimeter diameter. The
settling velocity is slow, with the intensity rarely exceeding 1
mm / hr (0.04 in./hr). It is also known as warm precipitation.
Hailstone of diameter approx. 6 cm
Precipitation types

Three major categories of precipitation are:

1. Convective
2. Orographic
3. Cyclonic.
Precipitation types
Convectional precipitation
 Precipitation types
Classification/Types of Precipitation
Convectional precipitation results from the heating of the earth's surface that
causes air to rise rapidly. As the air rises, it cools and moisture condenses into
clouds and precipitation. This type of precipitation is common in the prairie
provinces.

Orographic precipitation results when warm moist air of the ocean is forced
to rise by large mountains. As the air rises it cools, moisture in the air
condenses and clouds and precipitation result on the windward side of the
mountain while the leeward side receives very little. This is common in British

Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge( front) of a warm air
mass meets a cool air mass. The warmer air mass is forced up over the cool
air. As it rises the warm air cools, moisture in the air condenses, clouds and
precipitation result. This precipitation is common in Atlantic Canada.
 Measurement of precipitation
These data can be defined in terms of:

Depth (d), is the sum of rainfall,

Intensity (i), or depth of rainfall per unit time,
Duration (t)
Frequency, is the frequency of rain, it is usually called
as return period (T), for example once in T years,
Area (A), is the area of rainfall geographic.
 Example 2.1
From the precipitation data given, estimate cumulative rainfall and rainfall
intensity.

Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(min)

Rainfall 0 0.18 0.21 0.26 0.32 0.37 0.43 0.64 1.14 3.18
(cm)

Tme 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
(min)

Rainfall 1.65 0.81 0.52 0.42 0.36 0.28 0.24 0.19 0.17
(cm)
 Solution
Time (min) Rainfall (cm) Cumulative rainfall Rainfall intensty
(cm) (cm/hour)
0 0 0
10 0.18 0.18 1.08
20 0.21 0.39 1.26
30 0.26 0.65 1.56
40 0.32 0.97 1.92
50 0.37 1.34 2.22
60 0.43 1.77 2.58
70 0.64 2.41 3.84
80 1.14 3.55 6.84
90 3.18 6.73 19.08
100 1.65 8.38 9.90
110 0.81 9.19 4.86
120 0.52 9.71 3.12
130 0.42 10.13 2.52
140 0.36 10.49 2.16
150 0.28 10.77 1.68
160 0.24 11.01 1.44
170 0.19 11.2 1.14
180 0.17 11.37 1.02
 Solution
Cumulative rainfall = 0.18 + 0.21 = 0.39 cm.

Cumulative rainfall is a plot of cumulative rainfall

versus time (min) while rainfall intensity (cm/hr) data
are typically reported in either tabular form or graphical
form (hyetograph).

Time interval, t = 10 minutes = 0.167 hour

Rainfall intensity = 0.18 cm / 0.167 hour = 1.08

cm/hour
 Types of rain gauge
There are several different types of rain gauges
that are grouped by how they operate:

non recording rain gauge

recording rain gauge,
Non recording rain gauge
8
2.53

24
20

Support (wood) Overflow can Measuring Receiver

tube

Measuring stick
050 (to road directly in .01 of an inch of precipitation)

040

030

020

010 One - tenth inch

One - hundredth inch division

 Recording rain gauge
i) Weighing gauge
ii) Tipping bucket
iii) Float type

Weighing gauge
Tipping Bucket
Float type
 Location for rain gauge
Buildings, landscaping and trees, and even the wind can
affect the amount of precipitation arriving at the rain
gauge.
Proper placement is critical to ensure that rain sensor
readings are an accurate representation of the actual
rainfall.
The ideal site for a rain gage is in an open area that is
protected from the wind in all directions.
A good guideline is to allocate the rain gauge at a
minimum distance of twice the height of building/tree
away.
Location for rain gauge
 Missing data
Precipitation measuring stations sometimes fail in providing
a continuous record of precipitation.

Instruments do malfunction and back-up systems may not

always provide accurate data.

A tipping bucket may not function for a short period of

time and the back-up volume gage may not provide time
related data.

For a non automatic recording gage, an individual may fail

to record the data and miss a visit to the site.

Thus, there are generally missing data, the values of which

must be estimated.
 MISSING DATA

Point precipitation: precipitation measured at a

rain gauge is called point rainfall.

Arithmetic mean method

Normal ratio method
Quadrant method
 MISSING DATA
Arithmetic mean method

average annual precipitation at each of the

stations differs from the average at the
missing data station by less than 10%
 PX = 1/M (Pi)
Or PX = 1/M [P1+P2+P3+..........+PM]
PX = estimated daily precipitation volume
at the missing data site, X (depth)
P1, P2, P3, ..PM = estimated daily
precipitation volume at the adjacent
stations, 1, 2, 3 M (depth)
M = number of adjacent stations
Example Chapter 2
Normal Ratio Method
-the difference between the average annual
precipitation at any of the adjacent stations and
the missing data station is greater than 10%
 PX = NX/M (Pi/Ni )
or PX = NX/M [ P1/N1 +P2/N2 + P3/N3 +..........+ PM/NM ]
NX = average annual precipitation at the missing data site, X (cm)
Ni = average annual precipitation at the adjacent sites (cm)
Example Chapter 2
 Quadrant Method
-coordinate system
- x is the missing
y station

Q
I II
R
2
P
S

x X x
4 2 2 4
T
U
2
III IV

4
The estimated rainfall at the point of interest is given
by;

PX = (Wi.Pi)

W
1/ L i
2

1/ L
i n
2
i
i 1

L2 = X2 + Y2
L2= distance in x and y coordinates
MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

The representative precipitation over a

defined area
 Arithmetic - mean Method
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ....... + Pn
n
P = Pi
n
P = average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = precipitation depth at gage (i) within the
topographic basin (mm)
n = total number of gaging stations within the
topographic basin
 Thiessen Polygon Method

precipitation =
Polygon area for each station x precipitation
Total polygon area

A1 p1 A2 p2 A3 p3 ...... An pn n Ai pi
P
A1 A2 A3 ...... An i 1 A
where:
A = total area
p = average precipitation depth
p1, p2, pn = depth of precipitation at
rainfall station
A1, A2, An = sub area at station 1,2,3, .n
 St2

St3

St1

St
4

St
St
5
6
 Catchment
boundary
St2

St3
A2

A3
St1

A1 St4

A4

A5 A6

Example: St5
St6
 Isohyetal Method

p0 p1 p1 p2 pn1 pn n p pi
i 1
n p

pi
An Ai i 1
A1 A2 ........ 2
P 2 2 2 i1 n i1 2
A1 A2 ........ An A A
i
i 1

P = mean areal precipitation

A = Area
p1, p2, pn = precipitation depth for each station
A1, A2, An = area for each site
EXAMPLE:
GAGE CONSISTENCY
- Double Mass Curve
Normally, bring the older rainfall data to
the new environment

inconsistent over a period of time and

adjustment of the measured data is
necessary to provide a consistent record

changes in data-collection procedures or

conditions at a given location.
 Procedure

Add the annual precipitation of base stations.

Cumulate the sums of Step 1.
Cumulate the annual precipitation for station X.
Plot graph accumulated annual precipitation
Station X versus accumulated precipitation of Base
stations and compute the slope Mo and Ma.
 Adjust the measured precipitation of gauge X
using

Pa = P x Ma
Mo
where
Pa = adjusted precipitation value at station X
Po = original precipitation value at Station X
Ma = adjusted slope
Mo = original slope
 Mo

Pox

Accumulated total precipitation at Station X Pax Ma

Mo = Px
P and

MaP = Pa
P

Accumulated precipitation of base stations

ample