Introduction

Lecture # 2
 Interference

Adjacent channel interference

Reason
Signals in nearby frequencies have components outside
their allocated ranges, these components may interferes
with on-going transmissions in the adjacent frequencies
Avoidance
Introduce guard bands between the allocated frequency
ranges

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 Transmission Rate Constraints

Two important constraints that determines the

maximum rate of data transmission on a channel are
Nyquists theorem
Shannons Theorem
Signaling speed of a transmitted signal
Number of times per second the signal changes its
value/voltage
Number of changes per second is measured in terms of baud
Baud and bit rate may or may not be same

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 Bit Rate & Baud Rate

Bit rate
Number of bits transmitted during one second
Baud rate
Number of signal units per second that are required to
represent those bits
Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate

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 Modulation

Modulation is the process where a Radio Frequency or Light Wave's

amplitude, frequency, or phase is changed in order to transmit
intelligence
Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal
onto a carrier signal
These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the air
easily and are capable of traveling long distances
The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier
signal are varied in accordance with the information bearing signal
In the field of communication engineering, the information bearing
signal is also known as the modulating signal
The modulating signal is a slowly varying signal - as opposed to the
rapidly varying carrier frequency
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 Modulation Techniques

Data (analog & digital) has to be converted into

electromagnetic waves for transmission over a
wireless channel
Analog modulation
Digital Modulation

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 Analog Modulation

Used for transmitting analog data

Analogue data signal is superimposed on a
carrier signal
Aimed at altering certain properties
Amplitude
Angle Modulation
Frequency
Phase

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 Amplitude Modulation

Carrier signal is modulated

so that its amplitude varies
with changing amplitude of
the modulating signal
Simple
Creates additional
unwanted signals (side
bands) in the frequencies
on either side of the of the
carrier
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 Frequency Modulation

Frequency of the carrier

signal is modulated to
follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude)
of the modulating signal
Complex
More resistant to noise

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 Phase Modulation

Phase of the carrier

signal is modulated
to follow the
changing voltage
level (amplitude) of
the modulating
signal

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 Digital Modulation

Used for transmitting digital signals (sequence of 0

and 1 bits)
Changes occurs in continuous manner in analogue
modulation whereas, they occur at discrete time
intervals in digital modulation
The number of such changes per second is known as
baud rate
Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Frequency shift keying (FSK)
Phase shift keying (PSK)
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 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Strength of the carrier

signal is varied to
represent binary 1 or 0
Peak amplitude of the
signal during each bit
duration is constant, and
its value depends on the
bit (0 or 1)
Highly susceptible to
noise interference

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 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Frequency of the carrier

signal is varied to
represent binary 1 or 0
Frequency of the signal
during each bit duration is
constant, and its value
depends on the bit (0 or 1)
Avoids most of the
problem of noise

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 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Phase of the carrier is

varied to represent binary
1 or 0
Phase of the signal during
each bit duration is
constant, and its value
depends on the bit (0 or 1)

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 Multiplexing

Multiplexing, is the set of

techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission
of multiple signals across a
single data link

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 Categories of Multiplexing

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 Multiple Access Techniques

Transmission medium in wireless networks is

broadcast in nature, a node can not transmit on the
channel whenever it wants to
Multiple access techniques are used to control
access to the shared channel
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
Time division multiplexing (TDM)
Code division multiplexing (CDM)
Space division multiplexing (SDM)
Also called channelization
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 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Available bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency

channels/bands
A transmitter-receiver pair uses a single dedicated
frequency channel for communication
Frequency bands are separated from each other by
guard frequency bands in order to eliminate inter-
channel interference
Results in underutilization of frequency spectrum

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 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
& De-multiplexing

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 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Each frequency band is divided into periodically repeating time slots

(channels)
A set of such time slots is known as TDMA frame
Each node is assigned one or more time slots in each frame, and
the node transmits only in those slots
Perfect synchronization is required between sender and the
receiver
To prevent synchronization errors and inter-symbol interference
due to signal propagation time differences, guard intervals are used
between time slots
Result in significance overhead for the system
Widely used in 2G cellular systems such as GSM
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 Error Control

Bit error rate (BER) is very high in wireless

Unreliable nature of the wireless channel makes error
control even more important in the wireless network
context
Several coding schemes are available, which try to
provide resistance against errors by adding redundant
bits to be transmitted
Channel coding
These redundant bits help the receiver to either
Detect errors and request for retransmission (error detection)
OR to identify and correct the faulty bits (error correction)
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 Types of Errors

Single bit error

Only one bit of the given data unit is changed from 1
to 0 or from 0 to 1
Burst error
2 or more bits in the data unit have changes
Does not necessarily mean that the errors occur in
consecutive bits
Length of the burst is measured from the first
corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit

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 Error Detection Codes

Simpler than error correction

Mainly used on LAN
Error rate is much lower as compare to wireless
Use the concept of redundancy , adding extra bits for
detecting errors at the destination
Three types of redundancy checks
Parity checks
Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC)
Checksum

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 Parity Check

A parity bit is added to each data unit to

make the number if 1s in the unit (including
the parity bit) even or odd
Simple parity check can detect all single-bit
errors
Can not detect a multiple of twobit errors in
the same message
Receiver can only detect error can not
correct it
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 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Based on binary division

Sender and receiver must agree upon a number (divisor)
Data to be sent is divided by the divisor
A sequence of redundant bits (CRC bits or remainder)
are appended to the end of data unit
At the destination the, the incoming data is divided by the
number(divisor)
If there is no remainder or error, frame is accepted otherwise
rejected

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 Checksum

Also based on the concept of redundancy

Sender
Data unit is divided into k sections , each of
n bits
All sections are added using ones
complement
Sum is complemented and becomes the
checksum and sent with data
Receiver
Data unit is divided into k sections , each of
n bits
All sections are added using ones
complement
Sum is again complemented
If the result is zero, data are accepted,
otherwise, rejected
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 Error Correction

Error correction by retransmission

Wait till the time we discuss flow and error control
protocols
Forward error correction (FEC)
Include enough redundant information along each
block of data sent, to enable the receiver to deduce
what the transmitted data must have been
Usually use on unreliable channels, such as wireless,
where it is better to add enough redundancy rather
than relying on retransmission, which itself may be an
error
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 Simple Concept

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 Simple Concept

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 Simple Concept

Assume the sender encodes the dataword 01 as

011 and sends it to the receiver
Receiver receives 011, it is a valid codeword,
receiver extracts the dataword 01 from it
Codeword is corrupted during transmission, and 111 is
received, not a valid codeword and is discarded
Codeword is corrupted during transmission, and
000 is received, this is a valid codeword
Receiver incorrectly extracts the dataword 00
Two corrupted bits have made the error undetectable
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 Network Models

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