Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Chapter 6
2
General Form of Models
The models in this chapter are material balance models. The
material under consideration is the pollutant of interest.
The General material balance equation is:
3
Three types of Models (in this chapter)
1. Fixed-Box Models
2. Diffusion Models
3. Multiple Cell Models
4
1) Fixed-Box Models
The city of interest is assumed to be rectangular.
The goal is to compute the air pollutant concentration in this
city using the general material balance equation.
Fig. 6.1
De Nevers
5
1) Fixed-Box Models
The city of interest is assumed to be rectangular.
The goal is to compute the air pollutant concentration in this
city using the general material balance equation.
Assumptions:
1. Rectangular city. W and L are the dimensions, with one
side parallel to the wind direction.
2. Complete mixing of pollutants up to the mixing height H.
No mixing above this height.
3. The pollutant concentration is uniform in the whole volume
of air over the city (concentrations at the upwind and
downwind edges of the city are the same).
4. The wind blows in the x direction with velocity u , which is
constant and independent of time, location, & elevation.
6
Assumptions
5. The concentration of pollutant in the air entering the city is
constant and is equal to b (for background concentration).
6. The air pollutant emission rate of the city is Q (g/s). The
emission rate per unit area is q = Q/A (g/s.m2). A is the
area of the city (W x L). This emission rate is assumed
constant.
7. No pollutant enters or leaves through the top of the box,
nor through the sides.
8. No destruction rate (pollutant is sufficiently long-lived)
7
Now, back to the general material balance eqn
Accumulation rate = (all flow rates in)
(all flow rates out)
+ (creation rate)
(destruction rate)
8
the general material balance eqn becomes:
0 = (all flow rates in) (all flow rates out)
0=uWHb+qWLuWHc
qL
c b
uH
Where c is the concentration in the entire city
12
Modifications to improve the fixed-box model
1) Hanna (1971) suggested a modification that allows one to
divide the city into subareas and apply a different value of q
to each. (since variation of q from place to place can be
obtained; q is low in suburbs and much higher in industrial
areas).
13
Modifications to improve the fixed-box model
c. Multiply the concentrations obtained in step b by the
frequency and sum to find the annual average
14
Example 6.2
For the city in example 6.1, the meteorological conditions
described (u = 3 m/s, H = 1000 m) occur 40 percent of the
time. For the remaining 60 percent, the wind blows at right
angles to the direction shown in Fig. 6.1 at velocity 6 m/s
and the same mixing height. What is the annual average
concentration of carbon monoxide in this city?
15
example 6.2 cont. Note that L is now
5km, not 15km
g
4 10
6
2
5000 m
5 g s.m
For u = 6 m/s and H = 1000 m c
m3 6 m/s 1000 m
g
c 8.33 3
m
16
Graphical Representation of the Fixed-Box
Model Equation (Fig. 6.2 in your textbook)
17
Example
A pollutant concentration was calculated to be c1 with
emission rate q1. If the Environmental Authority wishes to
reduce the concentration to c2, compute the new allowable
emission rate (q2)
We can use graphical interpolation: c1
q2 c2 b
q1 c1 b c2
OR
q1 c1 b
uH
L
b
Divide (2) by (1) to
q2 c2 b
uH
L get the same result q2 q1
Note this can be done only when the meteorological
parameters are constant
18
Example 6.3 (fractional reduction in emission rate)
The ambient air quality standard for particulates (TSP) in the
USA in 1971 was 75 g/m3 annual average. In 1970 the
annual average particulate concentration measured at one
monitoring station in downtown Chicago was 190 g/m3.
The background concentration was estimated to be 20
g/m3. By what percentage would the emission rate of
particulates have to be reduced below the 1970 level in
order to meet the 1971 ambient air quality standard?
c1
c1 = 190 g/m3 , c2 = 75 g/m3
c2
19
q
Example 6.3 (fractional reduction in emission rate)
c1 = 190 g/m3 , c2 = 75 g/m3
Fractional reduction q1 q2 q2
1
in emission rate q1 q1
1
c2 b c1 c2
c1 b c1 b
Fractional reduction 190 75
190 20
c1
in emission rate
0.67 67%
c2
b
OR: you can use interpolation from
the graph
q2 q1
20
2) Diffusion Models
Called as diffusion models. However, they are actually
dispersion models.
Such models usually use the Gaussian plume idea.
Fig. 6.3
De Nevers
21
2) Diffusion Models
Problem Statement
Point source (smoke stack) located at (0, 0, H) that steadily
emits a pollutant at emission rate of Q (g/s)
The wind blows in the x-direction with velocity u.
The goal is to compute the concentration due to point source
at any point (x, y, z) downwind.
22
2) Diffusion Models
Description of Situation in Fig. 6.3
The origin of the coordinate system is (0, 0, 0), which is the
base of the smoke stack.
Plume is emitted form a point with coordinates (0, 0, H)
H = h + h , h = physical stack height
h = plume rise
Plume rises vertically at the beginning (since it has higher
temperature and a vertical velocity), then levels off to travel in
the x-direction (wind direction).
As the plume travels in the x-direction, it spreads in the y and
z directions.
The actual mixing mechanism is the turbulent mixing; not the
molecular diffusion.
What will happen if the molecular diffusion was the only mechanism?
23
cont. Description of Situation in Fig. 6.3 2) Diffusion Models
24
2) Diffusion Models
The Basic Gaussian Plume Equation
Q y 2 ( z H ) 2
c exp 2
2 u y z 2 y 2 z
2
25
Example 6.4
Q = 20 g/s of SO2 at Height H
u = 3 m/s,
At a distance of 1 km, y = 30 m, z = 20 m (given)
Required: (at x = 1 km)
a) SO2 concentration at the center line of the plume
b) SO2 concentration at a point 60 m to the side of and 20 m
below the centerline
2) Diffusion Models
26
solution of example 6.4
Q y2 ( z H ) 2
c exp 2
2 u y z 2 y 2 z
2
a) At the centerline
y 0, z - H 0 e 0 1
Q 20 (g/s)
c .00177 g/m 3 1770 g/m 3
2u y z 2 (3 m/s)(30 m)(20 m)
b) At a point 60m to the side and 20 m below the CL
y 60 m, z - H - 20 m
20 (g/s) 60 2 (20) 2
c exp
2
2 (3 m/s)(30 m)(20 m) 2
2(30) 2(20)
(1770 g/m 3 )(0.0818) 145 g/m 3
2) Diffusion Models
27
What about y and z? (Dispersion coefficients)
y z Spreading in the two directions are not equal
Most often y > z Elliptical contour concentration at a
given x .
Symmetry is disturbed near the ground.
To determine y > z , use figures 6.7 and 6.8
2) Diffusion Models
28
Horizontal dispersion coefficient
Figure 6.7
De Nevers
29
Vertical dispersion coefficient
Figure 6.8
De Nevers
30
Notes on Figures 6.7 and 6.8
Both y & z are experimental quantities. The derivations of
equations 6.24 and 6.25 do not agree with reality.
We will only use figures 6.7 and 6.8 to find y & z.
Plotted from measurements over grasslands; i.e. not over
cities
However, we use them over cities as well since we have nothing
better
Measurements were made for x 1 km. Values beyond 1 km
have been extrapolated.
2) Diffusion Models
31
What are the A to F categories?
A to F are levels of atmospheric stability (table 6.1).
Explanation:
For a clear & hot summer morning with low wind speed, the sun heats
the ground and the ground heats the air near it. Therefore air rises and
mixes pollutants well.
Unstable atmosphere and large y & z values
2) Diffusion Models
32
Stability Classes
34
Some Modifications of the Basic Gaussian Plume
Equation
a) The effect of the ground
b) Mixing height limits and one dimensional spreading
35
a) The Effect of the Ground
Equation 6.27 assumes that the dispersion will continue
vertically even below the ground level! The truth is that
vertical spreading terminates at ground level.
To account for this termination of spreading at the ground
level, one can assume that a pollutant will reflect upward
when it reaches the ground
36
the Effect of the Ground
This method is equivalent to assuming that a mirror-image
plume exists below the ground.
The added new concentration due to the image plume uses
z+H instead of z H . (draw the plume to check!)
Q y2 z H 2
c exp 2 exp
2 u y z 2 2
y 2 z
Q
2
y
exp 2 exp
zH
2
2 u y z 2 2
y 2 z
c
Q y 2
exp 2 exp
z H 2
exp
z H 2
2 u y z 2 2 2
y 2 z 2 z
37
Example 6.6 (effect of ground)
Q = 20 g/s of SO2 at Height H
u = 3 m/s,
At a distance of 1 km, y = 30 m, z = 20 m (given)
Required: (at x = 1 km)
SO2 concentration at a point 60 m to the side of and 20 m
below the centerline: a) for H = 20 m
b) for H = 30 m
Q y 2 z H 2 z H 2
c exp 2 exp exp
2 u y z 2 2
2
y 2 z 2 z
2) Diffusion Models
38
example 6.6
a) For H = 20 m i.e. the concentration at the ground level itself (z = 0)
(z H)2 = (-H)2 = H2
(z + H)2 = (H)2 = H2
Therefore the answer will be exactly twice that in the 2nd part of example 6.4
c = (145 g/m3) 2 = 290 g/m3 .
b) For H = 30 m
20 (60) 2 202 402
c exp exp
2
exp
2
2 (3)(30)(20) 2
2(30) 2(20) 2(20)
1
c 0.00177 exp 2exp exp 2
2
c 0.001770.1350.605 0.135 0.001770.1 177 106 g/m 3
i.e. about 22 % greater than the basic plume equation (since the basic
plume eqn does not take ground reflection into account.
39
Ground-Level Equation
Set z = 0 in the equation accounting for the ground effect:
Q y 2 z H 2 z H 2
c exp exp exp
2 u y z 2
2
2 z
2 2 z
2
y
Q y 2 H 2 H 2
c exp 2 exp exp
2 u y z 2 2
2
y 2 z 2 z
Q y2 H 2
c exp 2 2 exp 2
2 u y z
2 y 2 z
Q y2 H 2 This is the ground-level
c exp 2 exp 2
modification of equation 6.27. It
u y z
2 y 2 z takes reflection into account.
This is the most widely used equation because it applies directly to the
problem of greatest practical interest, which is the ground-level
concentration.
40
Using Figure 6.9 to estimate Ground-Level
concentration
Q y2 H 2
c exp 2 exp 2
u y z
2 y 2 z
41
Example 6.8 (using figure 6.9)
Q = 100 g/s at Height H = 50 m
u = 3 m/s, and stability category is C
At a distance of 1 km, y = 30 m, z = 20 m (given)
Required:
Estimate the ground-level concentrations directly below the
CL of the plume at distances of 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 5, 10 km
downwind
2) Diffusion Models
42
example 6.8 (using figure 6.9)
Using figure 6.9, we can read the values of cu/Q at each distance
Distance (km) cu/Q (m-2) c (g/m3)
0.2 1.710-6 57
0.4 4.410-5 1467
0.5 5.310-5 1767
1 3.610-5 1200
5 2.710-6 83
10 7.810-7 24
2) Diffusion Models
43
Plume Rise
h
Vs D
1.5 2.68 10 PD
3 Ts Ta
u Ts
h = plum rise in m
This equation is only correct for the Vs = stack exit velocity in m/s
D = stack diameter in m
dimensions shown.
u = wind speed in m/s
P = pressure in millibars
Ts = stack gas temperature in K
Ta = atmospheric temperate in K
2) Diffusion Models
44
Example 6.9
2) Diffusion Models
45
Multiple Cell Models
Complex simultaneous reaction rate expressions (Figure 1.2)
Multiple cell modeling is used. The Urban Airshed Model
UAM is an example this modeling type.
Model Description:
The airspace above the
city is divided into multiple
cells. Each cell is normally
from 2 to 5 km each way and
is treated separately from the
other.
Four or six layers in the
vertical direction, half below
the mixing height and half
above.
46
How does the Model Work?
Mass balance for each cell. To start the simulation, we should
have initial distribution of pollutants.
The program calculates the change in concentration of the
pollutant for a time step (typically 3 to 6 minutes) by
numerically integrating the mass balance equation (eqn 6.1)
Complex computations requiring data on:
Wind velocity and direction
Emissions of the ground-level cells
Solar inputs
47
How does the Model Work?
The concentrations from the end of the previous time step are
used to first compute the changes in concentration due to
flows with the winds across the cell boundaries, and then
compute the changes due to chemical reactions in the cell.
These two results are combined to get the concentration in
each cell at the end of the time step.
Therefore, the model needs subprograms for the chemical
transformations during the time step in any cell and
subprograms for deposition of the pollutant from the ground-
level cells.
48
How does the Model Work?
Complex computations requiring data on:
Wind velocity and direction
Emissions of the ground-level cells
Solar inputs
The previous data are needed to simulate a day or a few days
in an urban area. What if such data are not available?
The program has ways of estimating them. The following is a common
procedure:
Choose a day on which the measured pollutant concentration was the
50
Receptor-Oriented Models
The previous models are called source-oriented models. We use
the best estimates of the emission rates of various sources and
the best estimate of the meteorology to estimate the
concentration of various pollutants at various downwind points.
In receptor-oriented models, one examines the pollutants
collected at one or more monitoring sites, and from a detailed
analysis of what is collected attempts to determine which sources
contributed to the concentration at that receptor. This source
differentiation is not an easy process; for example:
If the pollutant is chemically uniform (e.g. CO, O3, SO2), then there is no
way to distinguish between sources.
If the pollutant is not chemically uniform; i.e. consisting of variety of
chemicals within the pollutant itself (e.g. TSP, PM10, PM2.5), one can
analyze their chemical composition and make some inferences about the
sources. (Aluminum and silicon example in page 148)
51
Receptor-Oriented Models
When results of both types disagree significantly, we tend to
believe the receptor-oriented model because we have more
confidence in chemical distribution data than we have in the
meteorological data.
If the goal is to estimate the effects of proposed new sources
(e.g. for permitting issues), source oriented models are used.
Receptor-oriented models cannot be used in such cases.
Therefore receptor-oriented models are mostly used to
test the estimates made by source-oriented models
Simultaneously test the accuracy of the emissions estimates that are
used in source-oriented models
52
Building Wakes & Aerodynamic Downwash
When the wind flows over the building, a plume may get sucked
and trapped into low-pressure wake behind the building. This
will lead to high local concentration.
A simple rule of thumb for avoiding this problem is to make
the stack height at least 2.5 times the height of the tallest
nearby building.
Another simple rule of thumb:
downwash unlikely to be a problem if:
hs hb + 1.5 Lb
hs : stack height
hb : building height
Lb : the lesser of either building height or maximum
projected building width.
53
Building Wakes
54
Building Wakes
55
Building Wakes
56
Structure Influence Zone (SIZ): For downwash analyses
with direction-specific building dimensions, wake effects
are assumed to occur if the stack is within a rectangle
composed of two lines perpendicular to the wind direction,
one at 5L downwind of the building and the other at 2L
upwind of the building, and by two lines parallel to the
wind direction, each at 0.5L away from each side of the
building, as shown below. L is the lesser of the height or
projected width. This rectangular area has been termed a
Structure Influence Zone (SIZ). Any stack within the
SIZ for any wind direction shall be included in the
modeling.
57
58
For US EPA regulatory applications, a building is considered
sufficiently close to a stack to cause wake effects when the
distance between the stack and the nearest part of the
building is less than or equal to five (5) times the lesser of
the building height or the projected width of the building.
Distancestack-bldg <= 5L
59
Figure 4.6: GEP 360 5L and Structure Influence Zone (SIZ) Areas of
Influence (after U.S. EPA).
60