A2 Physical Education

Sport Psychology

PERSONALITY
Revision Guide
Mr Leighton
 Personality TIPS!
Make sure you learn the specific definition of
personality!
Have awareness of the links between
personality and sports performance.
It is important to understand the NATURE
(trait) V NURTURE (social learning) and
interactionist perspectives of behaviour.
Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each
perspective.
Be aware of the problems associated with the
use of personality profiling in sport.
 Personality
The sum total of an individuals
characteristics which make him
unique (Hollander).

Personality is the more or less stable and

enduring organisation of a persons character,
temperament, intellect and physique which
determines the unique adjustment to the
environment (Eysenck).
 Personality Types
TRAITS NARROW BAND APPROACH,
GIRDANO, 1990
INTROVERT TYPE A
Shy, timid, Highly competitive,
reserved, aloof, Strong desire to succeed,
self sufficient Works fast, likes to control,
Prone to suffer stress

EXTROVERT TYPE B
Adventurous, Non-competitive,
confident, Unambitious,
Sociable, Works more slowly,
Group dependent, Does not enjoy control
enthusiastic Less prone to stress

Personality Theories
Trait Theory
People are born with established
personality characteristics
Inherited at birth.
Stable
Enduring
consistent in all situations.
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF
PERSONALITY
+ve = Can be easily measured
through questionnaires
-ve = Does not take into account
environmental influences. It is
not a true indicator of behaviour.
CATTELL (1965) identified 16
personality traits
INTROVERT & EXTROVERT
NATURE
Vs
NURTURE
Social Learning Theory
(Bandura)
All behaviour is learned through
interaction with the environment
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF
ENVIRONMENT
-ve = Does not consider inherited
behaviour (traits)
Interactionist Theory
Behaviour occurs from the
interaction between inherited traits
and learned experiences
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF
PERSONALITY ENVIRNOMENT
 Personality Theories
Concentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967)
Role Related Behaviour Surface of personality

Typical Response Your usual response in

most situations

The Psychological Core The real you

The boundary line of each layer gets wider as you get

closer to the centre of the model which shows that each
layer is harder to enter. As you move closer to the centre,
your real personality begins to surface
 Personality Theories
Psychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933)

ID, EGO & SUPER

ID
EGO
Basic Instinct
(no conscious
Conscious EGO interact to
link with reality
control) produce individual
patterns of
behaviour in sport.
SUPER EGO
Moral Arm
(social conscience)

Personality is formed from the

conflict of SEEKING,
****THINK OF RELEASING and INHIBITING
AGGRESSION AS AN behaviour.
EXAMPLE!****
 Personality Theories
Eysencks Personality Types Personality traits run
across 2 continuums:
NEUROTIC INTROVERT:
unsociable, shy &
(UNSTABLE) nervous
EXTROVERT:
sociable, outgoing &
lively

INTROVERT EXTROVERT STABLE: calm, even-

tempered, controlled
7 logical
UNSTABLE: anxious,
moody, unpredictable
& illogical
STABLE
 Personality Testing
Methods of Testing
1) Observation
2) Psychometric methods: self report questionnaires (16
personality factor questionnaire designed by CATTELL)

Problems
1) Questionnaires, observations and self-reports are not
reliable as people can fix answers.
2) SCEPTICAL APPROACH: Evidence is too general personality
alone can not predict behaviour.
3) CREDULOUS APPROACH: Although there is a link between
personality research and performance in sport, there is lack
of evidence to support this.
 Attitudes TIPS!
Make sure you understand how attitudes are
formed and influenced.

You need to be able to explain how attitudes

can be changed.

Try to understand the links between attitude

and behaviour in sport.
ATTITUDE OBJECTS
The people, subject or
situation towards which an
attitude is directed.
 What is an ATTITUDE?

ATTITUDES A learned behavioural

predisposition. (linked with personality)

UNSTABLE
LEARNED CAN BE
CHANGED/
CONTROLLED

DIRECTED TOWARDS
ENDURING EMOTIONAL
ATTITUDE OBJECTS
& BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE
 Formation of Attitudes
COACHES/ PAST
TEACHERS EXPERIENCES

PREDUJICE
PARENTS
ATTITUDES

FRIENDS/ MEDIA
PEERS

Attitudes are mainly formed through experiences.

Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other people.
 Triadic Model of Attitudes
This is COGNITIVE
knowledge and beliefs
known as the example : fitness training
keeps me fit

information
component
This concerns
how a person
ATTITUDE
intends to
This is known to regular exercise
behave towards
as the emotional
an attitude object
component

AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOURAL
intended behaviour
feelings and emotions
example : I attend training
example : I enjoy training
sessions regularly
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
(Festinger)

If a person hold two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other
an element of discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called
DISSONANCE.
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the
conflicting ideas could be lessened and therefore an attitude would
change.

Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can

change the cognitive component.

Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the
affective component.

If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make

execution easier, the behavioural component of attitude can be changed.

Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE from AS SKILL

 Persuasive Communication Theory
You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading
someone to change their attitude.

Would these people persuade you or would they just cause you stress?
 Persuasive Communication Theory

PERSUASIVE
COMMUNICATION
1. The Persuader 2. The Message the person must
Significant other Positive to initiate - pay attention
with high status the change - understand
- accept
- retain
the message being given

the coach must

3. The recipients - be expert
- be trustworthy
Easy to changed
4. The situation
an attitude if the the message must
The presence of - be clear
recipient really
other persuaders - be unambiguous
wishes to be - be balanced between
changed pros and cons
 TASK

You are a GCSE PE pupil.

How could persuasive
communication change your
negative attitude towards
cross country?
 ANSWER
1. A significant other, e.g. teacher/captain persuades you that
cross country has excellent fitness benefits for a GCSE PE
pupil. The teacher explains that they can chose cross country
as one of their 4 sports.
2. The teacher tells you it will improve your practical grade if you
opt for cross country.
3. You understand that this could improve your overall practical
grade so you begin to realise the benefits of taking part.
4. Other pupils in your GCSE class share positive experiences of
cross country with you and actively encourage you to take part.
 TASK
How could a physical education
teacher change the negative
attitude that a pupil may have
towards swimming?
 ANSWER..
Educate the pupil about the benefits of swimming
Use cognitive dissonance theory
Persuasive communication from a significant other, e.g.
teacher
Set achievable goals to ensure pupil achieves success
and experiences enjoyment.
Offer rewards, e.g. praise, trophies.
Familiarise with role models from within the sport of
swimming.
Use floats to make execution of some strokes easier.
Attribution retraining.
 To conclude.
Attitudes are generally poor predictors of
behaviour.
Social and situational factors influence
actual behaviour very strongly.
Behavioural intention is the strongest
predictor of behaviour (Fishbein, 1974).
 Achievement Motivation TIPS!
You need to understand the meaning of the
term achievement motivation.
Make sure you know the characteristics of
the different personality types TAS and
TAF.
You need to be aware of the links between
personality and the motive to achieve.
It is important to make links between TAS
and TAF and attributions for success and
failure.
 Achievement Motivation
Achievement Motivation is a concept developed by
sports psychologists to link PERSONALITY and
COMPETITIVENESS.

The major issue centres on the extent to which

an INDIVIDUAL IS MOTIVATED TO ATTAIN
SUCCESS.

Success in sport is measured against some type

of COMPETITIVE GOAL.
 Types of Goals
According to BIDDLE, there are several types of goal against
which success can be judged:
MASTERY or TASK GOALS: Associated with self-
improvement, e.g. trying to achieve a PB in athletics (the same
as PROCESS GOALS).
EGO or ABILITY GOALS: Involve a comparison against ones
rivals, e.g. beating everyone else to win the club tennis
tournament (the same as OUTCOME GOALS)
SOCIALLY APPROVED GOALS: Involves seeking social
reinforcement as a measure of success, e.g. winning to earn
approval from parents or coaches.

THINK BACK TO GOALS FROM AS SKILL!

 Atkinson & McClelland (1976)
Interactionist View

In any challenging situation, everyone will

have both a need to achieve and a need to
avoid failure. Whichever feeling is stronger
will determine whether the task is accepted
or declined.

Competitive orientation is generated

through personality and situational factors
 Personality Factors
A = TAS
someone with a high need to achieve
will probably have a low need to
avoid failure and will choose
difficult or demanding tasks which
are more risky, e.g.
the hard route up a rock face

B = TAF
someone with a high need to avoid
failure will probably have a low
need to achieve and will choose
tasks which are less risky and TAS = Tendency to APPROACH
more easily achieved, e.g. the easy success
route up the rock face
TAF = Tendency to AVOID failure
 Situational Factors

A =
If the probability of success low
(competing against the world
champion) you will strive very hard to
win (incentive high). You will be highly
chuffed if you win.
B =
If the probability of success high
(competing in local club match) you
dont need to try as hard to win
(incentive low and expect to win
easily). It is not so pleasing if you
win.
 What can the coach do?

IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)

Increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and

satisfaction
Ensure that goals are achievable
Ensure that at least some situations guarantee success
and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line
with progress
Ensure that tasks are challenging
Ensure that the probability of success is good
Ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the
race worth winning?)
What can the coach do?
REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID
FAILURE (NaF)

Reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of

performer worrying about failure
Focus negative feedback on effort rather than
ability. This avoids the performer tending to believe
that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of
ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned
helplessness.
Avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable
(such as performing against a much superior opponent)
if this is not possible alter the criteria for success
(you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals).
 Group Dynamics TIPS!
Be able to define the terms group and team.
You need to understand Steiners model of group
performance.
Be able to explain the Ringlemann effect and
social loafing and how they damage the
cohesiveness of a team.
Learn the factors affecting the cohesiveness of a
group and how any breakdowns can be prevented.
Learn the characteristics of an effective leader.
Describe emergent and prescribed leaders.
You need to be able to understand the different
perspectives on and theories of leadership.
 Groups
Groups are those social aggregates that
involve mutual awareness and the potential
for interaction (McGrath)

A collective identity
GROUPS
A sense of shared purpose
(Carron)
A clear structure for
communication
 Group Cohesion
The extent to which a group sticks
together in pursuit of a common goal.

TASK COHESION
SOCIAL COHESION
The way team members
The personal relationships
work together to
within a group which relies
successfully complete
on individuals enjoying
a task, e.g. a football team sets
social interaction, e.g. strong
Out to win by adopting attacking
Bond developed whilst on tour.
Tactics at home & away matches
Vital in CO-ACTIVE sports,
Vital in INTERACTIVE
e.g. track and field
Sports, e.g. hockey
 Group Dynamics
The social processes operating within the
group between individual members.

TO ACHIEVE COHESION
SUB GROUPS Break down cliques
Small groups and sub groups
contained within Separate pairs
the whole group Integrate isolates

GROUP DYNAMIC
SOCIOGRAM Team sports rely on
The best way of units within the team
illustrating the Working closely
group dynamics of together
a team.
 Steiners Model
ACTUAL = POTENTIAL - LOSSES DUE TO
PRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY FAULTY PROCESSES
(AP) (PP) (FP)

The team The maximum Factors that go wrong

performance at capability of in team performance
any given time the group which impede/ prevent
(due to when group cohesion e.g. co-
successful cohesiveness is ordination losses &
interaction) strongest motivational losses

GROUP COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT BINDS A GROUP

TOGETHER, HELPING TO PREVENT FAULTY PROCESSES.
 Faulty Processes
Co-ordination Losses
o These occur when the
operational effectiveness of
the group cannot be sustained
for the whole match.
o Planned strategies/tactics
may go wrong due to positional
error or bad timing, e.g. Line
out in rugby.
A co-ordination loss that leads to a
breakdown in team work is called the
RINGLEMANN EFFECT.
Problems with team co-ordination are
more likely to increase as the number
of team members increase.
Motivation Losses
o This may occur if the task is
too difficult.
o Also an individual might suffer
loss of motivation causing them
to withdraw effort and coast
through that part of the game.
A motivation loss that leads to a
reduction in effort is called
SOCIAL LOAFING. This is called
when an individuals efforts go
unnoticed or when someone feels
like the others on their team are
not trying hard enough. People with
low SC tend to be loafers.
 Group Locomotion
The process that explains the reasons
why the group has formed. It symbolises
the activity of the team.

****Dont always
For locomotion to be assume that good
efficient there must players make good
be a LEADER to leaders! Make sure you
ensure the co- know the
ordination of the characteristics of a
team. good leader****
 Leadership
Think of Woody
from Toy Story!

Determination
Good Understand the
communication needs of
skills others
Highly
developed
perception
Ambition What makes a good skills
Leader?
Experience
Vision

Good at making Empathy with team

decisions members
 Selection of a Leader
EMERGENT LEADERS: Already belongs
to the group & selection is made
formally, e.g. by vote or interview.

PRECRIBED LEADERS: Selected from

outside of the group and is known as an
external appointment.
 Leadership Theories
IS A LEADER BORN OR MADE?
o TRAIT APPROACH: Leaders are born with the skills
necessary to take chargehowever, although certain traits may
be helpful in leadership, they are not essential, so this theory is
NOT A GOOD PREDICTOR OF BEHAVIOUR.
o SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: The skills of leadership can be
acquired by copying others and then developed through
experiences. Copying successful role models is called vicarious
reinforcement. This DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE
TRAIT PERSPECTIVE.
o INTERACTIONIST THEORY: Leaders emerge because of
inherited abilities (traits) and learned skills. Interactionist
theory gives a MORE REALISTIC EXPLANATION OF HUMAN
BEHAVIOURS IN SPORT.
 Styles of Leadership
Autocratic Leaders
Democratic Laisser-faire
(task orientated):
Leaders Leaders:
Tend to make all (social/personal
decisions orientated): Leader stands
aside and allows the
Motivated to complete a
Shares decisions group to make their
task as quickly and
and responsibilities own decisions
effectively as possible
with group
Members of this
Authoritarian style
Interested in type of group tend
they do not take into
developing inter- to be aggressive
account the groups
personal towards one
opinions
relationships within another when
Does not share the team mistakes occurred
responsibility and they gave up
Effective in co-
easily.
Effective when quick active sports
decisions need to be made
 Fiedlers Contingency
Model
According to Fiedler, the correct style of leadership to adopt depends on the
favourableness of the situation.

Highly favourable situation Highly unfavourable situation

Leaders position is strong Leaders position is weak

Task is simple with clear structure Task is complex with vague

structure
Warm group and leader relations Hostile group and leader relations

AUTOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in both the MOST

FAVOURABLE and the LEAST FVOURABLE situations.
DEMOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in MODERATELY
FAVOURABLE situations.
Multidimensional Model of
Sports Leadership
LEADER
CHARACTERISTICS

REQUIRED ACTUAL LEADER

BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOUR
what is expected by team the way in which the coach
management of the coach normally goes about his job

performance /
satisfaction

PREFERRED LEADER
BEHAVIOUR
the way in which members prefer
their coach to relate to them

SITUATION MEMBER's
CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS
 Multidimensional Model of Sports
Leadership
CHELLANDURAI believed that the effectiveness of the group could be judged
on:
1. The degree of success accomplished during a task
2. The extent to which the group experienced satisfaction while being led to the
goal.

SITUATIONAL, LEADER AND GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISCS interact to

determine the behaviour adopted by the leader (these are ANTECEDENTS)
REQUIRED, ACTUAL AND PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR are 3 types of leader behaviour
that would be guided by these antecedents.
If all three of the leader behaviours are CONGRUENT (coincide exactly) then
members will be highly satisfied and produce high group performance.
Effective leadership has taken place if the ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR HAS SURPASSED
THE SITUATIONAL DEMANDS AND THE STYLE HAS MET WITH THE APPROVAL
OF THE GROUP.
 Mental Preparation TIPS!
You need to understand the meaning and
links between commitment, self-
confidence, concentration and control of
emotion.
Be able to explain each term in the
context of mental preparation for sport
performance.
You must be able to identify and explain
the relevant theories associated with
each term.
Mental Preparation
COMMITMENT

4 SELF-CONFIDENCE

C s
CONCENTRATION

EMOTIONAL
CONTROL
 LINKED

Concentration
WITH
AROUSAL!

A state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific aim or

activity.

Mistakes in top level sport happen not because technique is suspect,

but because of attentional errors (MARTENS)

When AROUSAL IS LOW the PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS and an excessive

number of environmental cues enter into the information processing system.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS NOT in operation and CONCENTRATION ON
RELEVANT INFORMATION IS DIFFICULT.
**********INFORMATION OVERLOAD OCCURS **********

LOW AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS LIMITED

SELECTIVE ATTENTION = LACK OF CONCENTRATION
 Cue Utilisation Theory
This theory predicts THE SELECTION OF THE MOST RELEVANT
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AT THE OPTIMAL AROUSAL LEVEL.
As arousal increases the perceptual field will adjust to the ideal width
enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant cues/information.
Selective attention is fully operational and the potential to concentrate
is maximised.

OPTIMAL AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD AT IDEAL

WIDTH SELECTIVE ATTENTIONS IN OPERATION =
CONCENTRATION IS MAXIMISED!

Beyond this optimal threshold (over aroused), the perceptual focus narrows
excessively and the relevant cues may be missed. The athlete appears highly
agitated and panics. This condition is known as HYPER-VIGILANCE or PANIC.

HIGH AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD NARROWS

RELEVANT CUES MISSED = HYPER-VIGILANCE & PANIC
 NIDEFFERS Think of the
difference

ATTENTIONAL STYLES
between a C &
GA in Netball

All players have a preferred NIDEFFERS ATTENTIONAL

attentional style. To improve STYLES
performance it is necessary to BROAD
operate successfully in all styles. - a player concentrates on the whole
game
EXTERNAL - all players positions and
movements
- open skills
NARROW
- the player concentrates on one
aspect of the game
- the goalkeeper
BROAD NARROW - closed skills
INTERNAL
- the player decides to concentrate
on his own technique
EXTERNAL
-the player focuses on the position
INTERNAL of his opposite number
 Emotional Control
AROUSAL, ANXIETY, STRESS and ACTIVATION all relate to
MOTIVATION. Arousal will improve performance up to an optimal point,
however this optimal threshold changes or shifts for every individual
and different situation.

Task Type
Personality Stage of Learning Experience
- Simple/ Gross
-Extroverts perform skills are performed -Autonomous stage - Experienced
best when arousal is better in high perform better in performer is
high (seek arousal, e.g. shot put high arousal best in high
stimulation of RAS) arousal
- Complex/ fine - Cognitive/
- Introverts skills are performed associative phase - Novice
perform best at low better in low perform better in performer is
arousal (sensitive arousal, e.g. spin low arousal best in low
RAS system) bowling in cricket arousal
 Individual Zone of Optimal
Functioning (Hanin)

Athlete A In zone
Out of zone
(low ZOF) (best performance)

Athlete B In zone
Out of zone Out of zone
(moderate ZOF) (best performance)

Athlete C In zone
Out of zone
(high ZOF) (best performance)

Increasing Arousal

An athlete will enter the zone when arousal is at an optimum level and the
situation matches the athletes strongest attentional style.
 Individual Zone of Optimal
Functioning (Hanin)
Different people perform better under different (arousal) conditions:

Personality Task Type Stage of Experience

Learning

SIMPLE/ COGNITIVE/ NOVICE

Low Zone of INTROVERT GROSS ASSOCIATIVE PERFORMERS
Functioning SKILLS, E.G. PHASE
(low SHOT PUT
arousal)
High Zone COMPLEX/ AUTONOMOUS EXPERIENCED
of EXTROVERT FINE PERFORMER
Functioning SKILLS, E.G.
(high SPIN
arousal) BOWLING
 Individual Zone of Optimal
Functioning (Hanin)
Teachers and coaches should guide the performer towards their personal
optimal threshold or individual zone of optimal functioning.

EFFORTLESS
THE
PERFORMANCE
ATHLETE
FEELS IN IN THE
FULL
CONTROL ZONE!
ATTENTION AND
CONCENTRATION
EXECUTION OF OF THE
THE SKILL BRINGS PERFORMER IS
ENJOYMENT AND FOCUSED
SATISFACTION
 Anxiety
TRAIT ANXIETY: Genetically inherited. These people appear to be anxious at
all times. This tends to be permanent and relatively stable.
STATE ANXIETY: This fluctuates in response to a given situation and is
associated with arousal. It is a learned behavioural response, but can be
controlled and manipulated to facilitate optimal performance.
(SPIELBERGER)

SOMATIC (physical) RESPONSE: Follows the inverted U hypothesis and refers to

physiological changes. Somatic responses include excesses muscular tension, heart and
respiration rates, resulting in impaired movement. This condition will not allow the
performer to enter a peak flow state.
COGNITIVE (psychological) RESPONSE: Reflects increasing worry about performance.
They could become increasingly apprehensive and develop doubts and negative thoughts.
Attentional changes occur which negatively impact on the information processing system.
If the athlete experiences worry, he or she will not attain a peak flow state.
 Anxiety
Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial imbalance between the individuals
perception of their ability and their perception of the demands and importance
of the situation. (MARTENS)

Perception of the situational ANXIETY Perception of ability to cope.

Demands. e.g. I am not as good as my
e.g. I must win my leg of the relay if my opponent
team is to have the chance of winning.

Perception of the importance of the situation.

e.g. The result of this competition hinges
on this relay race.
 Anxiety Management
COGNITIVE SOMATIC
METHODS METHODS

IMAGERY
PROGRESSIVE
MUSCULAR
THOUGHT STOPPING RELAXTATION

POSITIVE TALK BIOFEEDBACK

RATIONAL THINKING
 PEAK FLOW
PEAK FLOW: Optimal experience that facilitates best performance and is
intrinsically valuable. (Csikzentmimalyi)

Peak flow occurs when somatic

High somatic arousal
anxiety has reached an appropriate
threshold and cognitive anxiety is low.
Excitement, Anxiety, High flow state is attained when the
Low happiness anger cognitive performer has a balanced perception
cognitive of the demands of the situation and
Arousal
his/her ability to cope.
Arousal Relaxation, Boredom anxiety a high incentive value is to be gained
anxiety Drowsiness fatigue from a challenge that is both realistic
and attainable.
Low somatic arousal The focus of attention and
concentration is maximised.
During these rare moments in sport, the athlete there is a self-confident belief that
assumes control over all internal and environmental nothing could go wrong.
variables and a time of greatest happiness and self- the situation suits the athletes
fulfilment is experienced. strongest attentional style.
 Competitive Effects on Sport
Performance TIPS!

You need to be able to recognise the difference between

aggression, assertion and channelled aggression.
You need to understand the main theories of aggression.
Be able to describe how aggressive tendencies can be limited.
Understand the difference between social facilitation and
social inhibition.
Describe the major theories of social facilitation and be able to
link them to arousal.
Try to understand the homefield advantage phenomenon.
Be able to suggest strategies to combat social inhibition.
 Aggression
Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or
verbal means. (BULL)

Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another
human being who is motivated to avoid such treatment. (BARON)

HOSTILE (OR REACTIVE) INSTRUMENTAL (OR ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR

AGGRESSION
Main aim is to harm and inflict
injury.
Aggressive actions are outside
the rules of the game
Hostile destructiveness is the successful execution
(PARENS)
Hostile aggression involves
anger.
This type of aggression needs
to be eliminated from sport!
CHANNELLED)
AGGRESSION
Actions within the rules of
the game.
Although PRIME motive
of the skill, there is still
the intention to harm.
Anger is not evident.
Present in many sporting
situations.
No intention to harm.
Strictly within the rules
and spirit of the game.
Robust, but functional play.
Primarily focused on
completing the skill
successfully.
Non-hostile self-
protective mastery
behaviour (PARENS, 1987)
 Antecedents of Aggression
HOSTILE FRUSTRATION
NATURE CROWDS CAUSED BY POOR
OF THE
PERFORMANCE,
GAME
OPPOSITION OR
REFS DECISIONS.
WIDE
DIVISION AGGRESSION
BETWEEN VENUEAWAY
SCORES TEAM

PREVIOUSLY HIGH EXTRINSIC

DEVELOPED GRUDGES AROUSAL REWARDS
OR SCORES TO SETTLE LEVELS
 Theories of Aggression
INSTINCT THEORY (TRAIT PERSPECTIVE)
- Proposed by FRUED but
developed but LORENZ in 1966.
- Aggression is genetically inherited
and that trait of violence lies within everyone
due to a basic instinct to dominate.
- Death instinct (FREUD)
- Aggressive energy is constantly building
up and needs to be released (LORENZ)
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
- Proposed by BANDURA, 1966 but
developed by LEAKEY.
- Aggression is not biologically based
but is nurtured through environmental forces.
- Learned by watching and copying
role models and it becomes an
excepted mode of behaviour if reinforced.

AGGRESSION CUE HYPOTHESIS

FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
(BERKOWITZ, 1969)
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
- Proposed by DOLLARD.
- Builds upon DOLLARDS work.
- Frustration develops when goal-directed
-Frustration leads to an increase in arousal which,
behaviour or NACH is blocked.
in some situations will result in aggression.
-It is instinctive to fulfil the need
-Cues = baseball bats, violent acts being witnessed,
to release frustration.
nature of the game will trigger aggression if
- Instinct theory aggression is the goal.
arousal is high.
- Aggression = successful = catharsis
-Best players have the ability/temperament
- Aggression = unsuccessful = more frustration
to control frustration and arousal.
 Methods to eliminate
aggression

Punish aggressive play.

Withdraw violent players from the situation.
Stress performance rather than the outcome.
Emphasise non-aggressive role models.
Make use of cognitive strategies to prevent
aggressive play.
Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviour and
negatively reinforce aggressive behaviour.
Change athletes perceptions of the situation.
Implement stress management techniques.
Lower arousal levels
 Social Facilitation/Inhibition
SOCIAL FACILITATION: The presence of an audience positively increases
arousal levels and performance is enhanced.
SOCIAL INHIBITION: A negative effect on performance is experienced due
to the attendance of an audience.

TRIPLETT (1898) ZAJONC COTTRELLS

EVALUATION
1st Sport Psych - The mere presence of others
APPREHENSION
Experiment: is sufficient to increase the
arousal level of the performer. - In some
The presence of others
circumstances the
-This uses drive theory to
-Arouses competitive audience can have a
predict the effect of others on
drive calming effect.
performance.
- Releases energy - Increases in arousal
- As arousal increases (as would
were only present when
- Increases the speed of happen when spectators are
the performer
performance present), there is a greater
perceived that the
likelihood of the dominant
audience was assessing
response occurring.
performance.
 Social Facilitation/Inhibition
Homefield Distraction/ Conflict Strategies to Combat Social
Advantage: Theory (Barron, 1986) Inhibition:
-Large supportive -Individuals can only - Practice selective attention.
home crowds have attend to a limited
- Use imagery, mental rehearsal to
a positive effect amount of
block out audience effects.
on performance. environmental cues.
- Ensure essential skills are over-
- Most evident in - Spectators demand
learned and grooved.
indoor sports such the same attention as
as basketball. other players, resulting - introduce evaluative others into
in more competition for practice.
- Crowd gets close
attentional space.
to the action, - Raise athletes awareness of the
increasing audience - Complex actions would zone of optimal functioning.
influence. This is therefore be impaired
- Incorporate stress management
called the in front of large
into training.
proximity effect. crowds.
- Appropriate use of attribution
Attribution Theory TIPS!
You should be able to identify the
reasons for success and failure in
sport.
You need to understand Weiners
Attribution Model and be able to
relate it to specific sporting situations.
Learn the definitions of mastery
orientation and learned helplessness.
 Attribution Theory
Attribution theory looks at the common reasons coaches and
players give for their success or failure in sport.

LOCUS OF CAUSALITY

Weiners Attribution is the performance outcome caused by

- INTERNAL factors

Model under the control of the performer

ability / effort
- EXTERNAL factors
beyond the control of the performer
LOCUS OF CAUSALITY
task difficulty / luck
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
STABILITY
ability task difficulty is the performance outcome caused by
STABLE 'we were more 'the opposition are - STABLE factors
skilful' world champions' fixed factors which dont change with
STABILITY
luck time
UNSTABLE effort ability / task difficulty
'the court was
'we tried hard' - UNSTABLE factors
slippy'
factors which can vary with time
effort / luck
 Attribution Theory
HIGH ACHIEVERS LOW ACHIEVERS
attribute success to internal factors attribute success to external factors
and attribute failure to external factors and attribute failure to internal factors

HIGH ACHIEVER LOW ACHIEVER

motivation? high motive to achieve success low motive to achieve success

low motive to avoid failure high motive to avoid failure
focuses on pride on success focuses on shame and worry about
failure

attributions ascribes success to stable ascribes success to unstable

internal and controllable factors external uncontrollable factors
ascribes failure to unstable ascribes failure to stable
external uncontrollable factors internal controllable factors

goals adopted adopts task oriented goals adopts outcome oriented goals

task choice seeks challenging tasks and avoids challenge, seeks very difficult
competitive situations or very easy tasks / competition

performance performs well in front of performs badly in front of

evaluative audiences evaluative audiences
 Attribution Retraining
The athlete has little control over ability, luck or task
difficulty but has complete control over EFFORT. Effort is
internal and unstable and can be changed by the performer.

The coach changes the usual external attributions for failure

into internal, unstable controllable factors.

Attributing a lack of success to internal and unstable factors will

help to prevent learned helplessness.

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
A belief acquired over time that one has no control over events
and that failure is inevitable. A feeling of hopelessness.