Physics 211: Lecture 13

Today’s Agenda

 Potential Energy & Force

 If you know the potential function, you can easily find the force
this potential comes from – just take a derivative!

 Systems of Particles (main topic for today)

 Center of mass
 Velocity and acceleration of the center of mass

 Dynamics of the center of mass

» Linear Momentum

 Example problems

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 1

 What we’ve done so far
 Newton’s laws: 2nd and 3rd laws, especially (starting point)
 Forces
 Gravity, spring, friction (dynamic and static)
 Line tension
 Free body diagrams
 Work (definition)
 Kinetic energy (definition) Net Work by all Forces = change in KE
 Conservative forces and Potential energy
 Path independence of work done by conservative forces
 Change in Potential energy = (-1) times work done in motion
 Arbitrary constant (you choose, but have to stick with choice)
 Total mechanical energy
 Mech energy is Emech = KE + PE
 Conserved if no dissipation or external forces
 Changed by dissipation and external forces
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 2
 Potential Energy & Force
x2
 For a conservative force we define
U ( x2 )  U ( x1 )    F ( x ')dx '
the potential energy function x1
(1-D example): x
U ( x)    F ( x ')dx '  C
dU x1
 Therefore: F  
dx
x x

 Calculus says this!

U ( x  x)   
x1
F ( x ')dx '  C

x
U ( x)    F ( x ')dx '  C
F(x) x1

U ( x  x)  U ( x)   F ( x) x
x1 x x+x
x
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 3
 Potential Energy & Force
x2
For a conservative force we define U ( x )  U ( x )   F ( x ')dx '
x

2 1
the potential energy function:
1
x
dU
 Therefore: F   U ( x)    F ( x ')dx '  C
dx x1

 Consider some potential energy functions we know, and

find the forces:
1 2 dU
Spring: Ux  kx  C Fx    kx
2 dx
dU
Gravity near earth: U y  mgy  C Fy    mg
dy
GMm dU GMm
Newton’s Gravity: UR  C FR    
R dR R2
It’s true!!
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 4
 Using Potential Energy Diagrams

 Consider a block sliding on a

frictionless surface, attached
to an ideal spring. m
1 x
U s  kx 2
2
U

x
0

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 5

 Using Potential Energy Diagrams

 Consider a block sliding on a

F
frictionless surface, attached
to an ideal spring. m
1 x
U s  kx 2
2
U
 F = -dU/dx = -slope

x
x 0

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 6

 Using Potential Energy Diagrams
 The potential energy of the block is the same as that of an object sliding in a frictionless “bowl”:

Ug = mgy = 1/2 kx2 = Us

k
y x2
2 gm

is the height of an object x

0
in the bowl at position x

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 7

 Equilibrium

 F = -dU/dx = -slope
 So F = 0 if slope = 0. m
 This is the case at the x
minimum or maximum of
U(x). U
 This is called an equilibrium
position.
 If we place the block at
rest at x = 0, it won’t
move. x
0

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 8

 Equilibrium

 If small displacements from F

the equilibrium position result
in a force that tends to move m
the system back to its
equilibrium position, the x
equilibrium is said to be
stable. U
 This is the case if U is a
minimum at the equilibrium
position.
 In calculus language, the F
equilibrium is stable if the
curvature (second derivative) x
0
is positive.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 9

 Balance
Equilibrium cone

Birds
 Suppose U(x) looked U
like this: unstable
 This has two equilibrium
positions, one is stable neutral
(+ curvature) and one is
unstable (- curvature).
 Think of a small object
stable
sliding on the U(x)
surface: x
0
 If it wants to keep sliding when you give it a little push, the
equilibrium is unstable.
 If it returns to the equilibrium position when you give it a little
push, the equilibrium is stable.
 If the curvature is zero (flat line) the equilibrium is neutral.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 10

 System of Particles

 Until now, we have considered the behavior of very simple

systems (one or two masses).
 But real life is usually much more interesting!
 For example, consider a simple rotating disk.

 An extended solid object (like a disk) can be thought of as a

collection of parts. The motion of each little part depends on
where it is in the object!

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 11

 System of Particles: Center of Mass Ice
table
 How do we describe the “position” of a system made up of
many parts?
 Define the Center of Mass (average position):
 For a collection of N individual point-like particles whose
masses and positions we know:

m2
N m1
 m i ri r2
RCM  i 1 r1 RCM
N
y m3
 mi r3
i 1
m4 x
r4

(In this case, N = 4)

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 12
 System of Particles: Center of Mass

 If the system is made up of only two particles:

N
 m i ri m1 r1  m2 r2
i 1
RCM  
N
m1  m2
 mi
i 1


 m1  m2  r1  m2  r2  r1 
 m1  m2  r 2 - r1
m2
m1 RCM
r2
m r1
So: RCM  r1  2  r2  r1 
M
y
where M = m1 + m2
x
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 13
 System of Particles: Center of Mass

 If the system is made up of only two particles:

m2
RCM  r1   r2  r1 
M

where M = m1 + m2

If m1 = m2

1 r 2 - r1
RCM  r1   r2  r1  + m2
2
m1 RCM
the CM is halfway between r2
r1
the masses.
y

x
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 14
 System of Particles: Center of Mass

 If the system is made up of only two particles:

m2
RCM  r1   r2  r1 
M

where M = m1 + m2

If m1 = 3m2

1 r 2 - r1
RCM  r1   r2  r1 
4 + m2
m1
the CM is now closer to RCM r2
r1
the heavy mass.
y

x
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 15
 System of Particles: Center of Mass
Baton
 The center of mass is where the system is balanced!
 Building a mobile is an exercise in finding centers of mass.

+ + m2
m1 m2 m1

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 16

 System of Particles: Center of Mass

 We can consider the components of RCM separately:

 i m i x i i m i y i i m i z i 
( X CM ,YCM , Z CM )   , , 

 M M M 

m2
m1
r2
r1 RCM
y m3
r3
m4 x
r4

(In this case, N = 4)

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 17
 Example Calculation:
 Consider the following mass distribution:

 i mi x i m0  ( 2 m )12  m24
X CM    12
M 4m

my m0  ( 2 m )12  m0 2m
YCM  i i i  6
M 4m (12,12)

m m
(0,0) (24,0)

RCM = (12,6)

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 18

 System of Particles: Center of Mass

 For a continuous solid, we have to do an integral.

dm RCM 
 rdm   rdm
 dm M
r
y where dm is an infinitesimal
x mass element.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 19

 System of Particles: Center of Mass

 We find that the Center of Mass is at the “center” of the

object.

y RCM
x

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 20

 System of Particles: Center of Mass

 We find that the Center of Mass is at the “center” of the

object.

y The location of the center

of mass is an intrinsic
x
RCM property of the object!!
(it does not depend on where
you choose the origin or
coordinates when
calculating it).

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 21

 System of Particles: Center of Mass
 We can use intuition to find the location of the center of mass for symmetric objects that have uniform density:
 It will simply be at the geometrical center !

+ + +
CM

+ +
+

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 22

 Pisa
System of Particles: Center of Mass
Bottle
 The center of mass for a combination of objects is the
average center of mass location of the objects:
N
 mi R i
RCM  i 1
N
 mi
m2
+ i 1

R2 - R 1
+ R2 so if we have two objects:
RCM
+
m1R1  m2 R2
RCM 
m1  m2
m1 R 1
m2
y  R1   R2  R1 
M
x
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 23
 Lecture 13, Act 1
Center of Mass
 The disk shown below (1) clearly has its CM at the center.
 Suppose the disk is cut in half and the pieces arranged as shown in (2):
 Where is the CM of (2) as compared to (1)?

(a) higher (b) lower (c) same

X
CM

(1) (2)
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 24
 Lecture 13, Act 1
Solution
 The CM of each half-disk will be closer to the fat end than to the thin
end (think of where it would balance).

 The CM of the compound object will be halfway between the

CMs of the two halves.
 This is higher than the CM of the disk

X X
CM X

(1) (2)
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 25
 System of Particles: Center of Mass Double
cone
 The center of mass (CM) of an object is where we can
freely pivot that object.
pivot
+
CM
 Gravity acts on the CM of an object (show later)

 If we pivot the object

somewhere else, it will
orient itself so that the pivot pivot
CM is directly below

CM
the pivot. CM

+
+
mg
 This fact can be used to find
the CM of odd-shaped objects.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 26

 System of Particles: Center of Mass Odd
shapes
 Hang the object from several pivots and see where the
vertical lines through each pivot intersect!

pivot
pivot
pivot

+
CM

 The intersection point must be at the CM.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 27

 3 pronged
Lecture 13, Act 2 object
Center of Mass
Fork, spoon,
and match
 An object with three prongs of equal mass is balanced on a
wire (equal angles between prongs). What kind of
equilibrium is this position?

a) stable

b) neutral

c) unstable

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 28

 Lecture 13, Act 2
Solution
The center of mass of the If the object is pushed slightly to
object is at its center and is the left or right, its center of
initially directly over the wire mass will not be above the wire
and gravity will make the object
fall off

+ CM + CM
mg mg

(front view)
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 29
 Lecture 13, Act 2
Solution
 Consider also the case in which the two lower prongs have balls of equal mass attached to them:

+ CM + CM
mg
mg

In this case, the center of mass When the object is pushed slightly,
of the object is below the wire gravity provides a restoring force,
creating a stable equilibrium

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 30

 Velocity and Acceleration
of the Center of Mass
 If its particles are moving, the CM of a system can also move.
 Suppose we know the position ri of every particle in the system
as a function of time.
1 N M   mi 
N
RCM   m i ri 
M i 1  i 1 

dRCM 1 N dri 1 N
So: VCM    mi   mi v i
dt M i 1 dt M i 1

dVCM 1 N dv i 1 N
And: ACM    mi   m i ai
dt M i 1 dt M i 1
 The velocity and acceleration of the CM is just the weighted
average velocity and acceleration of all the particles.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 31

 Linear Momentum:

 Definition: For a single particle, the momentum p is

defined as:
(p is a vector since v is a
p = mv
vector).

So px = mvx etc.
 Newton’s 2nd Law:

F = ma
d dp
 m dv  ( mv) F 
dt dt dt

 Units of linear momentum are kg m/s.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 32

 Linear Momentum:

 For a system of particles the total N N

momentum P is the vector sum of P  pi   m i v i
the individual particle momenta: i 1 i 1

N
 1 N 
But we just showed that  m i v i  MVCM VCM   mi v i 
i 1  M i 1 

So P  MVCM

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 33

 Linear Momentum:

 So the total momentum of a system of particles is just the

total mass times the velocity of the center of mass.

P  MVCM

dP dV
 Observe:  M CM  MACM   m i ai   Fi ,net
dt dt i i

dP
 We are interested in so we need to figure out  Fi ,net
dt i

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 34

 Linear Momentum:

 Suppose we have a system of three particles as shown.

Each particle interacts with every other, and in addition
there is an external force pushing on particle 1.


 Fi ,NET  F13  F12  F1,EXT
i
 m3
F31
  F21  F23  F32

  F31  F32  F13

F23
 F1,EXT
(since the other forces m1 F12 F21
m2
cancel in pairs...Newton’s
3rd Law) F1,EXT
All of the “internal” forces cancel !!
Only the “external” force matters !!
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 35
 Linear Momentum:

 Only the total external force matters!

dP
  Fi ,EXT  FNET ,EXT
dt i
m3

Which is the same as:

dP m1
FNET ,EXT   MACM m2
dt
F1,EXT
Newton’s 2nd law applied to systems!

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 36

 Center of Mass Motion: Recap
Pork chop
 We have the following law for CM motion:
Pendulum
dP
FEXT   MACM
dt
 This has several interesting implications:

 It tells us that the CM of an extended object behaves like a

simple point mass under the influence of external forces:
 We can use it to relate F and A like we are used to doing.
 It tells us that if FEXT = 0, the total momentum of the system can
not change.
 The total momentum of a system is conserved if there
are no external forces acting.

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 37

 Example: Astronauts & Rope
 Two astronauts at rest in outer space are connected by a light rope. They begin to pull towards each other. Where
do they meet?

M = 1.5m m

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 38

 Example: Astronauts & Rope...

M = 1.5m m
 They start at rest, so VCM = 0.
 VCM remains zero because
CM
there are no external forces.
 So, the CM does not move!
L
 They will meet at the CM.
x=0 x=L

Finding the CM:

If we take the astronaut on the left to be at x = 0:

M ( 0 )  m( L ) m( L ) 2
x cm    L
M m 2 .5 m 5

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 39

 Lecture 13, Act 3
Center of Mass Motion
 A man weighs exactly as much as his 20 foot long canoe.
 Initially he stands in the center of the motionless canoe, a distance of 20 feet from shore. Next he walks toward the shore until he gets to the end of the canoe.
 What is his new distance from the shore?
(There is no horizontal force on the canoe by the water).

20 ft
(a) 10 ft
before (b) 15 ft
20 ft (c) 16.7 ft
? ft

after
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 40
 Lecture 13, Act 3
Solution
 Since the man and the canoe have the same mass, the
CM of the man-canoe system will be halfway between
the CM of the man and the CM of the canoe.
 Initially the CM of the system is 20 ft from shore.

X
X
x
20 ft

CM of system

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 41

 Lecture 13, Act 3
Solution
 Since there is no force acting on the canoe in the x-direction
and the CM was stationary, the location of the CM of the
system can’t change!
 Therefore, the man ends up 5 ft to the left of the system CM,
and the center of the canoe ends up 5 ft to the right.
 He ends up moving 5 ft toward the shore (15 ft away).

15 ft 10 ft
X
X
x
20 ft 5 ft

CM of system
Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 42
 Recap of today’s lecture

 Systems of particles (Text: 8-1)

 Center of mass (Text: 8-1 & 12-6)

 Velocity and acceleration of the center of mass (Text:8-3)

 Dynamics of the center of mass (Text: 8-3 to 8-4)

 Linear Momentum

 Example problems

 Look at textbook problems Chapter 8: # 3, 4, 9, 35, 51, 85, 114

Physics 211: Lecture 13, Pg 43