CH 9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies Web

Flow Over Immersed Bodies
Flow Over Immersed Bodies

Learning objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

identify and discuss the features of external flow.
Explain the fundamental characteristics of a boundary layer, including
laminar, transitional, and turbulent regimes.
Calculate boundary layer parameters for flow past a flat plate.
Provide a description of boundary layer separation.
Calculate the lift and drag forces for various objects.
General External Flow
Characteristics
General External Flow Characteristics
Flow past objects is termed external flow
Both theoretical and experimental approaches are used

to study external flows
Coordinate system fixed to the object is used to study

external flows
One consider the fluid flowing past a stationary body with

velocity U, the upstream velocity
Shape of the body affects the flow characteristics
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Flow Structure vs. Body Shape
I) (a) two-dimensional (b) axisymmetric (c) three-dimensional
II) streamlined bodies, blunt bodies
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Lift and Drag Concepts
Forces from the surrounding fluid on a
two-dimensional object:
pressure force
viscous force
resultant force: drag and lift

(more forces and moments for 3D body)
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D p cos dA w sin dA
L p sin dA w cos dA
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D p n i dA w i dA
A A
L p n j dA w j dA
A A
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Example
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Example
top 90
bottom 270
L p sin dA w cos dA L pdA pdA 0

top bottom
D p cos dA w sin dA D w dA w dA 2 w dA 0.0992 lb

top bottom top
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Example
front 0
back 180
L p sin dA w cos dA L
front
w dA
back
w dA 0
D p cos dA w sin dA D
front
pdA
back
pdA 55.6 lb
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Example
a) L=0 D = 0.0992 lb
b) L=0 D = 55.6 lb
c) L0 D0
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Lift and Drag Coefficients
Drag coefficient
D
CD
1
U 2 A
2
Lift coefficient
L
CL
1
U 2 A
2
A is ether frontal or planform area
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Characteristics of Flow Past an Object
Character of the flow is function of the shape of the body
For a given-shaped body, characteristics of the flow

depends on the value of Reynolds, Mach and Froude
numbers
For most external flows 10 < Re < 109
Re > 100 - inertia effects dominatde
Re < 1 viscous effect dominate
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Characteristics
of Flow Past
an Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow
past a flat plate
parallel to the
upstream velocity:
a) low Reynolds number

flow,
b) moderate Reynolds
number flow,
c) large Reynolds
number flow
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Characteristics
of Flow Past
an Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow past
a circular cylinder:
a) low Reynolds number

flow,
b) moderate Reynolds
number flow,
c) large Reynolds number
flow
Slide 16 back blank

Streamlined and Blunt Bodies
Shuttle landing Shuttle needs to be a relatively streamlined to glide properly.

Upon touchdown a drag chute is used to make it blunt object to slow it down.
Note: the wing tip vorticies (swirls) made visible by the smoke from the
skidding tires at the moment of touchdown.
Kayak and paddles A kayak is a streamlined to reduce drag. The paddle must
be blunt to impart the propulsive force to the kayak.
The Reynolds numbers for the paddle and the kayak are on the order of
100,000 to 1,000,000.
Human aerodynamic wake
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Example
Slide 14 blank
Boundary Layer Characteristics
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Boundary
Layer
Structure and
Thickness
on a Flat Plate
Large Reynolds number flow fields may be divided into viscous and inviscid regions
Consider infinitely long flat plate. Define Reynolds number.
Fluid particles within boundary layer experience viscous effects
Flow is rotational within boundary layer and irrotational outside
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at Rexcr ~ 2x105 to 3x106
Distinguishing feature of turbulent flow is the occurrence of irregular mixing of fluid

parcels. For laminar flows, mixing occurs only on the molecular scale
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Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate
Three boundary layer thickness definitions are used in boundary

layer analysis:
standard boundary layer thickness
boundary layer displacement thickness *
boundary layer momentum thickness
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Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate
y where u 0.99U
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Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness
u
1
*
dy
0
U
Displacement thickness represents the amount that the thickness of the

body must be increased so that the fictitious uniform inviscid flow has the
same mass flowrate properties as the actual viscous flow
It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the

viscous effects on the plate
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Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness
u u
1 dy
0 U U
Example blank
Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
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Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution
Equations governing steady, two-dimensional, laminar flows with negligible

gravitational effects are obtained from Navier-Stokes & continuity equations
u u u u p 2u 2u 2u
u v w gx 2 2 2
t x y z x x y z
v v v v p 2v 2v 2v
u v w gy 2 2 2
t x y z y x y z
w w w w p 2w 2w 2w
u v w gz 2 2 2
t x y z z x y z
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Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

gravitational effects are
u u 1 p 2u 2u
u v 2 2
x y x x y
v v 1 p 2v 2v
u v 2 2
x y y x y
u v
0
x y
L. Prandtl simplified these equations using boundary layer concepts

H. Blasius solved these simplified equations for the boundary layer flow past a flat
plate parallel to the flow
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Assumptions made:

1. v u and
x y
2. Pressure is constant throughout the fluid
With these assumptions governing equations
u v
0
x y
u u 1 p 2u 2u
u v 2 2
x y x x y
v v 1 p 2v 2v
u v 2 2
x y y x y
reduce to boundary layer equations: blank

Boundary layer equations:
u v
0
x y
u u 2u
u v 2
x y y
Boundary conditions:
uv0 on y0
u U as y
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Further assumptions:
1. In dimensionless form boundary layer velocity profiles on a flat plate should
be similar regardless on the location along the plate
u y
g
U
2. Boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of x and inversely

proportional to the square root of U
x

U
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U
By introducing dimensionless similarity variable y
x
and the stream function f xU , where f f is unknown function,
velocity components become
vU
u Uf v f f
4x
Substituting u and v into governing equations after manipulations gives
2 f ff 0
Boundary conditions
f f 0 at 0
f 1 as
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Boundary layer profiles in Similar boundary layer

dimensionless form profiles at different locations
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U
y
x
From solution: u U 0.99 when 5.0 .

Thus:
x 5
5 or
U x Re x
Laminar, flat plate boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of the
distance from the leading edge
Also
* 1.721 0.664
and
x Re x x Re x
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x
5 w 0.332 U 3
U x
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x 0.124
5 7.48 103 x m w 0.332 U 3
U x x
at x 3 m 0.013 m
w 0.0716 N m2
at x 6 m 0.0183 m
w 0.0506 N m2
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Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for
a Flat Plate
Momentum integral method provides an approximate technique to

analyze boundary layer flow
Consider uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume
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Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for
a Flat Plate
Assumptions:
Flow is steady within control volume
Pressure is constant throughout the flow field
Flow at section 1 is uniform
Velocity at section 2 varies from zero at the plate to upstream velocity at the edge of
the boundary layer
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Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
x component of the momentum equation F x uV n dA uV n dA

1 2
where for a flat plate of with b F x D

plate
w dA b
plate
w dx
where D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid

Thus D = U bh b u 2 dy
2
0

From continuity equation Ubh b udy
0

Then D b u U u dy
0
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Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Drag on a flat plate is related to momentum deficit within the boundary layer

D b u U u dy
0
Boundary layer flow on a flat plate is governed by a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid
As x increases, increases and the drag increases (but shear stress decreases!)
The thickness of the boundary layer is necessary to overcome the drag of the viscous shear
stress on the plate (in contrary to horizontal fully developed pipe flow)
Equation above was obtained by T. von Karman in 1921

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Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
In term of the momentum thickness
D bU 2
Shear stress on a flat plate is proportional to the rate of boundary layer growth.
This equation is valid for laminar or turbulent flow
d
w U 2
dx
Last equation is known as the momentum integral equation for the boundary layer flow on
a flat plate
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Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Method
Usefulness of the momentum integral equation lies in ability to obtain approximate

boundary layer results by using rather crude assumptions
Even a rather crude guess at the velocity profile will allow us to obtain reasonable drag and
shear stress results
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Example
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .
The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = Uy/ for 0 y and
u = U for y as shown in the figure. Determine the shear stress by using the
momentum integral equation. Compare results with the Blasius solution
d
From momentum integral equation w U 2 (1)
dx
U
on the other hand w (2)

u u
Momentum thickness dy1 (3)
0

U U6
U U 2 d 6
From (1), (2) and (3) or d dx
6 dx U
Integrating from leading edge to arbitrary x we get
2 6 x
x or 3.46 (4)
2 U U

Combining (1), (3) and (4), wall shear stress w 0.289U 3 2
x

Blasuis value w 0.332U 3 2 blank
x
Approximate velocity profiles are used with momentum integral equation
Accuracy of results depends on how closely the shape of the assumed

profile approximates the actual profile
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Consider general velocity profile as a function of dimensionless coordinate
u y
g g Y for 0 Y 1
U
u
1 for Y 1
U
Boundary conditions
g 0 0 and g 1 1
dg
0
dY Y 1
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Then boundary layer results with this general velocity profile are
2 C2 C1 and C1C2 3 2
w U
x Re x 2 x
where
dg Ux
C1 g Y 1 g Y dY
1
C2 Re x
0 dY Y 0

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Typical approximate boundary layer profile

used in the momentum integral equation
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2 w 2C1C2
Local friction coefficient cf
U 2 Re x
1 l 8C1C2
l 0
Friction drag coefficient CDf c f dx
Rel
1
Friction drag Df CDf U 2bl
2
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Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
The boundary layer on a flat plate will become turbulent if the plate is long enough
On a flat plate the transition from laminar to turbulent flow takes place at:
Re xcr 2 105 to Re xcr 3 106
For calculation use:
Re xcr 5 105
Turbulent spots and the transition

from laminar to turbulent boundary
layer flow on a flat plate. Flow from
left to right video
Transition from
Laminar to
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent boundary layer velocity

profiles have larger velocity gradients at
the wall and produce larger boundary
layer thickness than laminar profiles
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Example
A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = 3 m/s. At
approximately what location will the boundary layer become turbulent, and how
thick is the boundary layer at that point if the fluid is (a) water at 15C,
(b) standard air, or (c) glycerin at 20C
Solution
x Re xcr
5 xcr 1.7 105 cr x xcr
1190
U U
Results
Fluid (m2/s) Xcr (m) Cr (m)

a. Water 1.1210-6 0.190 1.310-3
b. Air 1.4610-5 2.482 0.017
c. Glycerin 1.1910-3 202.3 1.42
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Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
Structure of turbulent boundary layer is complex, random and irregular

Flow is the mix of eddies of different size video BL 1
Mass, momentum and energy are convected in x and y directions
Mass convection is small in y direction but there is considerable transfer of x
component of momentum in y direction
Plate acts as a momentum sink, extracting momentum from fluid
Wall shear stress for turbulent boundary layer flow is greater than for laminar
There is no exact solution for turbulent boundary layer since there is no precise
expression for shear stress in turbulent flow
Solution can be obtained by use of momentum integral equation. For that one need:
(Solve Example 9.6)
approximate velocity profile
empirical relation for wall shear stress
Progress is being made in numerical integration of Navier-Stokes equations
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Comments
Laminar boundary layer flow Turbulent boundary layer flow
x1 2 x4 5
w x 1 2 w x 1 5
The random character of the turbulent flow causes a different structure of the flow
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Flat plate drag coefficient is a function of Rel and relative roughness /l
Friction drag coefficient for a flat

plate parallel to the upstream flow
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EXAMPLE 9.7 The water ski shown in Figure
moves through 20 C water with a velocity U.
FIND Estimate the drag caused by the shear

stress on the bottom of the ski for 0 < U < 9 m/s.
SOLUTION
1
Df U 2lbCDf 75U 2CDf
2
Ul
Rel 9.98 105U

CDf 0.455 log Rel 1700 Rel 2.7 103

2.58
With U 3 m/s Rel 106
D 1.8 N
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SOLUTION
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Problem 9.17 The typical shape of small cumulus clouds is as indicated in figure below.
Based on boundary layer ideas, explain why it is clear that the wind is blowing from right
to left as indicated.
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Effect of Pressure Gradient
For flow along a flat plate pressure is constant throughout. For flow past body
other than flat plate the pressure is not uniform
Pressure variation in direction normal to the surface is small but pressure does
vary along the body surface if surface is curved
Terminology: U upstream velocity; Ufs free-stream velocity, the fluid velocity

at the edge of the boundary layer
Variation in Ufs causes pressure gradient in the boundary layer
Characteristics of the entire flow are dependent on the pressure gradient within
the boundary layer
For a flat plate U = Ufs, for a curved surface body it is not
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Effect of Pressure Gradient. Inviscid Flow
For inviscid flow: 0, =0
U fs v s 2U sin
ps is determined from Bernoulli equation
U 2 1 4sin 2
1
ps p0
2
For = 0 pressure is symmetrical and drag is zero
Experiment shows that drag is nonzero
Drag is essentially independent of the value of
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Effect of Pressure Gradient. Inviscid Flow
For inviscid flow fluid particle travel

without loss of energy
It is accelerated from Ufs = 0 at stagnation

point to Ufs = 2U at the top, and than
decelerated to Ufs = 0 at the rear
There is exchange of pressure and kinetic

energy
The decrease in pressure in the direction of

flow along front half of the cylinder is
termed favorable pressure gradient
The increase in pressure in the direction of

flow along the rear half of the cylinder is
termed adverse pressure gradient
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Effect of Pressure Gradient. Viscous Flow
For viscid flow the particle in the
boundary layer experiences a loss
of energy due to friction
The kinetic energy of a particle is

not enough to reach the rear end,
and the flow separates from the
surface
Because of the boundary layer

separation the average pressure
on the rear half of the cylinder is
considerably less than that on the
front half, and large pressure
drag is developed
Viscous effects within the

boundary layer cause boundary
layer separation
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Effect of Pressure Gradient. Viscous Flow
Location of separation, width of the wake

region, and pressure distribution depend
on the nature of the boundary layer
Turbulent boundary layer has more kinetic

energy and momentum than laminar
boundary layer because:
velocity profile is fuller
there is energy associated with

swirling motion
Turbulent boundary layer separation

occurs later along the surface
Video 1 Video 2 blank

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Drag and Lift
Generalized Formulae for Drag and Lift
Any object moving through fluid experiences drag. Drag is due to pressure
(pressure drag) and shear forces (friction drag)
Non-symmetrical objects experience lift
Generalized formulae for drag and lift calculations:
D p n i dA w i dA
A A
L p n j dA w j dA
A A
Compare with eqs. 9.1, 9.2
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Drag
Drag can be determined by use of equation D p n i dA w i dA

A A
if pressure distribution and wall shear stress are known.
Most of information of drag is obtained from experiment
Experimental results are given in the form of a drag coefficient:
D
CD
1
U 2 A
2
CD is a function of shape of the body, Reynolds number, Mach number, Froude
number and relative roughness:
CD shape, Re, Ma, Fr, l

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Friction Drag
Friction drag is a function of wall shear stress and orientation of a

surface
Df w i dA
Consider plate parallel and perpendicular to the flow
For blunt bodies and high Reynolds number flows friction drag is
small
For highly streamlined bodies and low Reynolds number flows most
of the drag is due to friction
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Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
Df w i dA
or from
1
Df U 2blCDf
2
Where friction drag coefficient can be obtained from Figure or Table
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Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more
advanced theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the
separation location at 108.8, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The shear
stress on the cylinder in the wake region, 108.8<<180, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient for the
cylinder based on the friction drag only
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Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more advanced
theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the separation location at
108.8, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The shear stress on the cylinder in the wake
region, 108.8<<180, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient for the cylinder based on the friction drag only
D
Solution: Df w i dA 2 b w sin d
A
2 0
2Df 2
CDf
U bD 2

U 2
0
w sin d
2 w 1 2 w Re
CDf sin d sin d
0 U 2 Re 0 U 2
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Example (cntd.)
1
CDf
Re F sin d
0
Answer:
5.93
CDf
Re
Result is valid only for laminar boundary layer flow
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Pressure Drag
Pressure drag is produced by the normal stresses.

Pressure (form) drag strongly depends of the body shape.
It can be determined from
Dp p n i dA
A
or in terms of the pressure drag coefficient

2Dp 2 p n i dA C p n i dA
CDp
U 2 A U 2 A A
where pressure coefficient (dimensionless form of the pressure)

2 p p0
Cp
U 2
For high Reynolds number flows CDp is relatively independent of Reynolds

number
For very small Reynolds number flows CDp is proportional to 1/Re
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Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
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Example (cntd.)
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
1 1 2 D 2
CDp
A C p cos dA
bD 0
C p cos b
2
d 0
C p cos d
Pressure drag coefficient
CDp 1.17
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Example (cntd.)
5.93
Drag coefficient CD CDf CDp 1.17
Re
Df CDf 5.93 Re 1

5.93
Friction drag to total drag ratio
D CD Re 1.17 1 0.197 Re
For Re = 103, 104, and 105 ratio is 0.138, 0.0483, and 0.0158
Most of the drag on the blunt cylinder is the

pressure drag a result of the boundary
layer separation
Comparison with the experimental data
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Drag Coefficient Data
Shape Dependence
video
Drag coefficient for an ellipse

with the characteristic area
either the frontal area, A = bD,
or the planform area, A = bl
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Shape Dependence (amount of streamlining)
Two objects of considerably different size that gave the same drag force:
(a) circular cylinder CD = 1.2; (b) streamlined strut CD = 0.12
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Reynolds Number Dependence
Consider low, moderate and large Reynolds number flows
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Case 1. Low Reynolds number (Re<1)
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Case 1. Low Reynolds number (Re<1)

For very low Reynolds number flows, inertia is negligible, and drag coefficient varies inversely with Re
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Example
A small grain of sand, diameter d = 0.10 mm and specific gravity SG = 2.3, settles to the bottom of a lake
after having been stirred up by a passing boat. Determine now fast it falls through the still water.
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Example
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Example
W D Fb
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Example

W D Fb W SG H 2O d3
6
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Example

W D Fb W SG H 2O d3 FB H 2O d3
6 6
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Example

6 6
24
Assume
CD
Re
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Example

6 6
24
Assume
CD
Re
1 2 1 2
24
D H2OU d CD H2OU
2
d
2

4 H2OU d H2O
Then
2 4 2
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Example

6 6
24
Assume
CD
Re
1 2 1 2
24
D H2OU d CD H2OU
2
d
2

4 H2OU d H2O
Then
2 4 2
or D 3H2OUd - Stokes law
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Example

6 6
24
Assume
CD
Re
1 2 1 2
24
D H2OU d CD H2OU
2
d
2

4 H2OU d H2O
Then
2 4 2
or D 3H2OUd - Stokes law
U 6.32 103 m/s Re 0.564
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Case 2. Moderate and large Reynolds number flows
Flow past a circular cylinder can take on a variety of different structures
Drag coefficient may change considerably when the boundary layer becomes turbulent
Karman vortex street Flow past cylinder
Oscillating sign Flow past a flat plate
Flow past an ellipse
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Character of the drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds

number for objects with various degrees of streamlining Flat plate
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Compressibility Effects
For large U, compressibility effects become important and CD = (Re, Ma)
Precise dependence of CD on Re and Ma is complex.
Drag coefficient is usually independent of Mach number for Ma < 0.5. For
larger Mach number, CD strongly depend on Ma, with secondary Reynolds
number effects. Figure
For most objects CD increases intensely in the vicinity of Ma = 1 due to

existence of shock waves. Character of CD is different for blunt and sharp
bodies Figure
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Surface Roughness
Depending on the body shape, an increase in surface roughness may

increase or decrease drag
For streamline bodies (flat plate parallel to flow) drag increases with
increasing surface roughness
For extremely blunt body (flat plate normal to flow) drag is independent of
surface roughness
For blunt bodies like a circular cylinder or sphere, an increase in surface

roughness can cause a decrease in the drag Figure
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Froude Number Effects
Froude number is the ratio of free-stream speed to wave speed on the

interface of two fluids.
Object moving on the surface produces waves that require the source of
energy.
Drag coefficient for surface ships is a function of Reynolds number (viscous

effects) and Froude number (wave-making effects)
Viscous and wave effect can be separated
Wave-making drag Dw is a complex function of the Froude number and the

body shape Figure
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Composite Body Drag
Drag on a complex body can be approximated as the sum of the drag on its
parts Example
Aerodynamic drag on automobiles provides one more example of the use of

composite bodies Drag on a truck Figure Automobile streamlining
Drag coefficient information is available in the literature Figures
How to reduce the drag?
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Example
A high-speed car with m = 2000 kg, CD = 0.3, and A = 1 m2 deploys a 2-m parachute to slow
down from an initial velocity of 100 m/s. Assuming constant CD, brakes free, and no rolling
resistance, calculate the distance and velocity of the car after 1, 10, 100, and 1000 s. For air
assume = 1.2 kg/m3, and neglect interference between the wake of the car and the
parachute.
notes
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Example
parachute.
Fc Fp V 2 CDc Ac CDp Ap
dV 1
Apply Newton's law Fx m
dt 2
dV K
Rearrange V2 where K CD A
dt m 2
V dV K t K
Separate variables and integrate
m 0
1 1
dt or V0 V t
V0 V 2 m
notes
Rearrange and solve for V V
V0
K
CDc Ac CDp Ap
(1)
1 K m V0t 2
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Example
parachute.
V0 K
Integrate (1) to find distance traveled S ln 1 t V0 (2)
m
From table CDp 1.2

Hence
CDc Ac CDp Ap 0.3 1 m 2 1.2
4
2 m 4.07 m
2 2
K notes
Then V 0.122 s-1
m
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Example
parachute.
t, s 1 10 100 1000
V, m/s 89 45 7.6 0.8
S, m 94 654 2110 3940
notes
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Lift
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Lift
How lift is generated?
Do we need lift?
Lift coefficient
L
CL
1
U 2 A
2
CL = (shape, Re, Ma, Fr, /l)
Body shape is the most important parameter that effects the lift coefficient
For large Re most of the lift comes from pressure forces
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Lift
Pressure distribution on a surface of an automobile
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Lift
For creeping flows (Re<1) shear stress and pressure effects may be
comparable
Airfoils produce lift by generating pressure distribution that is different on the

top and bottom surfaces
For large Re pressure distributions are directly proportional to the dynamic

pressure, hence lift is proportional to square of the air speed
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Airfoil
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Airfoil
angle of attack
c chord length
A = bc planform area
= b2/A aspect ratio
= b/c if c is constant
Lift and drag coefficients for wings are functions of the angle of attack and aspect ratio Figure
At large angles of attack the boundary layer separates and the wing stalls Figures video
Flaps alter the lift and drag characteristics of a wing Figure video video2
video
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Circulation
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Wind tip vortices
Circulation
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Circulation
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Circulation
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Now its end of topic
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w 0.332 U 3
x
Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
back
Navier-Stokes equations
u u u u p 2u 2u 2u
u v w gx 2 2 2
t x y z x x y z
v v v v p 2v 2v 2v
u v w gy 2 2 2
t x y z y x y z
w w w w p 2w 2w 2w
u v w gz 2 2 2
t x y z z x y z
back
Friction drag coefficient
for a flat plate parallel to
the upstream flow
back
back
Drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number
for a smooth circular cylinder and a smooth sphere
back to ex 1
Re s 2.24 107 CDs 0.3 Rec 8.41 106 CDc 0.7 back to ex 2
Drag coefficient as a function of Mach number for two-

dimensional objects in subsonic flow
back
Drag coefficient as a function of Mach number for supersonic flow
back
Surface Roughness
Effect of surface roughness on the drag coefficient of a sphere in the Reynolds

number range for which the laminar boundary layer becomes turbulent
back
Froude Number Effects
Typical drag coefficient data as a function of Froude number and hull

characteristics for that portion of the drag due to the generation of waves
back
Composite Body Drag
Example: A 60-mph (i.e. 88-fps) wind blows past the water tower shown in Fig. a. Estimate the moment, M,
needed at the base to keep the tower from tipping over.
Solution: Free-body diagram is shown in Fig. b
Composite Body Drag
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
Composite Body Drag
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
Ds U 2 Ds2CDs Dc U 2bDcCDc
2 4 2
Composite Body Drag
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106

Composite Body Drag
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106

From Figure 9.21

Composite Body Drag
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106

From Figure 9.21
CDs 0.3 and CDc 0.7

Composite Body Drag
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106

From Figure 9.21
CDs 0.3 and CDc 0.7
Ds 3470 lb Dc 4840lb
Composite Body Drag
D b
M Ds b s Dc
2 2
1 1
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s 2.24 107 Rec 8.41106

From Figure 9.21
CDs 0.3 and CDc 0.7
Ds 3470 lb Dc 4840lb
Answer: M 3.64 105 ftlb 493.52 kNm

Example: (cntd.)
Comments: Above result is only an estimate because

(a) wind is not uniform
(b) tower is not exactly combination of smooth sphere and circular cylinder
(c) cylinder is not of infinite length
(d) due to interaction of cylinder and sphere the net drag is not the sum of the two
(e) drag coefficient was obtained by extrapolation
back
Composite Body Drag
Historical trend of streamlining automobiles to reduce their

aerodynamic drag and increase their fuel economy
back
Composite Body Drag
Drag reduction of a tractor-trailer truck: (a) horsepower required to overcome resistance;

(b) deflector added to cab reduces air drag by 20 percent.
back
Composite Body Drag
Regular two-dimensional objects

Composite Body Drag
Regular Three-dimensional objects

Composite Body Drag
Other objects
back
Typical lift and drag coefficient
data as a function of angle of attack
and the aspect ratio of the airfoil
next
back
Flow visualization photographs of flow past an airfoil:
(a) zero angle of attack, no separation,
(b) 5 angle of attack, flow separation
next
Two representation of the same lift and drag data for a typical airfoil:
(a) lift-to-drag ratio as a function of angle of attack,
(b) the lift and drag polar diagram
back
Typical lift and drag alterations
possible with the use of various
types of flap design
back
Assume (guess) velocity profile in the boundary layer u u U , y
u u
Obtain equation for from 1 dy
0 U U
d
Calculate shear stress from w U 2
dx
Calculate drag from D bU 2
Even crude guess at the velocity profile gives reasonable drag and shear stress
Example
The water ski shown in figure moves through 70 F water with a velocity U.
Estimate the drag caused by the shear stress on the bottom of the ski for 0 < U < 30
ft/s
Solution
Assumptions: Ski is a flat plate parallel to the upstream flow
1
Df U 2blCDf 1.94U 2CDf
2
Ul
Re x 3.8 105U

For U 10 ft/s Rel =3.8 106 Df 0.598 lb
For U 30 ft/s Df 9.76 lb
Total drag is more than just friction drag.

Pressure drag must be accounted for.
Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Equation
with Nonzero Pressure Gradient
Pressure gradient effects can be included in the momentum integral equation

Free-stream velocity is not constant along the curved body
U fs U U fs U fs x
Total pressure is constant along the streamlines outside the boundary layer
p U 2fs 2 const
Pressure gradient
dp dU fs
U fs
dx dx
Momentum integral equation with pressure gradient:

d dU fs
w U 2fs *U fs
dx dx
This equation represents a balance between viscous forces, pressure forces and the fluid
momentum
Then boundary layer results with this general velocity profile are
2 C2 C1 C1C2 3 2
and w U
x Re x 2 x
where
dg Ux
C1 g Y 1 g Y dY
1
C2 Re x
0 dY Y 0
For any assumed profile the functional dependence of and w on , , U and x is

the same, only constants are different. That is
x U or Rex x const and w U 3 x

Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
Df w i dA
or from
1
Df U 2blCDf
2
Where friction drag coefficient can be obtained from Figure or Table
Wall shear stress along the surface of a curved body is difficult to determine.
Approximate results may be obtained.
If shear stress is known, friction drag can be determined
Example
d
dx
Example
d
dx
U

Example
d
dx
U

u u
Momentum thickness 1 dy (3)
0 U U 6
Example
d
dx
U

u u
Momentum thickness 1 dy (3)
0 U U 6
U U 2 d 6
6 dx U
Example
d
dx
U

u u
0

U U6
U U 2 d 6
6 dx U
2 6 x
x or 3.46 (4)
2 U U
Example
d
dx
U

u u
0

U U6
U U 2 d 6
6 dx U
2 6 x
x or 3.46 (4)
2 U U

Combining (1), (3) and (4), wall shear stress w 0.289U 3 2
x

Blasuis value w 0.332U 3 2 back
x
Example 9.6 Consider turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate.
the boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be u/U = (y/)1/7 = Y1/7 for
Y = y/ 1 and u = U for Y > 1. This is a reasonable approximation of
experimentally observed profiles, except very near the plate where this formula
gives u/y = at y = 0. Note the differences between the assumed turbulent
profile and the laminar profile. Also assume that the shear stress agrees with the
experimentally determined formula:

14
w 0.225U 2
U
Determine the boundary layer thicknesses ,

*, and and the wall shear stress, w, as the
function of x. Determine the friction drag
coefficient, CDf
Solution Momentum integral equation
2 d
14
w 0.225U 2
U
U
w
dx
For assumed velocity profile, boundary layer momentum thickness
u u u 1 u u
Y1 7 1 dy 0 1 dY
U 0 U U U U
or by integration
7

1
Y 1 7 1 Y 1 7 dY

0 72
Boundary layer thickness is obtained from differential equation
d
14
7
0.225U 2 U 2
U 72 dx

14
1 4 d 0.231 dx
U

15
By integration from 0 at x 0: 0.370 x 4 5

U
0.370
or in dimensionless form
x Re1x 5
Displacement thickness
1

u u 1
* 1 dy 0 U
1 dY 0 1 Y 17
dY
0
U 8

15
* 0.0463 x 4 5
U
Momentum thickness

15
7
0.0360 x 4 5
72 U
Wall shear stress
14
0.228 U 2
w 0.0225 U
2

U 0.370 U x
15 45
Re1x 5
Friction drag
l bl
Df b w dx 0.0360 U 2
0 Re1l 5
Friction drag coefficient
Df 0.0720
Df
1
U 2 A Re1l 5 back
2

SOLUTION
blank

SOLUTION
1
2
blank

SOLUTION
1
2
blank

SOLUTION
1
2
Ul
Rel 9.98 105U

blank

SOLUTION
1
2
Ul
Rel 9.98 105U

With U 3 m/s Re l 106 ? CDf 0.455 log Re l 1700 Rel 2.7 103 ?
2.58
D 1.8 N ?
blank

COMMENTS
At U = 0.001 m/s, Re1000 and results of

boundary layer theory are not valid
Actual drag (for 2 skis) is about 50 N
Other components of drag should be
accounted for (pressure drag, wave-
making drag etc.)
back blank
Momentum Integral Equation with Nonzero
Pressure Gradient

d dU fs
w U 2fs *U fs
dx dx
Notes
back
Thats all
But
For those who wants to know more

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Flow Over Immersed Bodies

Flow Over Immersed Bodies

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Flow past objects is termed external flow

Both theoretical and experimental approaches are used

Coordinate system fixed to the object is used to study

One consider the fluid flowing past a stationary body with

Shape of the body affects the flow characteristics

I) (a) two-dimensional (b) axisymmetric (c) three-dimensional

II) streamlined bodies, blunt bodies

resultant force: drag and lift

L p sin dA w cos dA L pdA pdA 0

D p cos dA w sin dA D w dA w dA 2 w dA 0.0992 lb

Character of the flow is function of the shape of the body

For a given-shaped body, characteristics of the flow

For most external flows 10 < Re < 109

Re > 100 - inertia effects dominatde

Re < 1 viscous effect dominate

a) low Reynolds number

a) low Reynolds number

Slide 16 back blank

Shuttle landing Shuttle needs to be a relatively streamlined to glide properly.

Human aerodynamic wake

Consider infinitely long flat plate. Define Reynolds number.

Fluid particles within boundary layer experience viscous effects

Flow is rotational within boundary layer and irrotational outside

Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at Rexcr ~ 2x105 to 3x106

Distinguishing feature of turbulent flow is the occurrence of irregular mixing of fluid

Three boundary layer thickness definitions are used in boundary

standard boundary layer thickness

boundary layer displacement thickness *

boundary layer momentum thickness

Displacement thickness represents the amount that the thickness of the

It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the

Equations governing steady, two-dimensional, laminar flows with negligible

Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

L. Prandtl simplified these equations using boundary layer concepts

2. Pressure is constant throughout the fluid

With these assumptions governing equations

reduce to boundary layer equations: blank

2. Boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of x and inversely

Substituting u and v into governing equations after manipulations gives

Boundary layer profiles in Similar boundary layer

From solution: u U 0.99 when 5.0 .

Momentum integral method provides an approximate technique to

x component of the momentum equation F x uV n dA uV n dA

where for a flat plate of with b F x D

where D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid

Equation above was obtained by T. von Karman in 1921

In term of the momentum thickness

Usefulness of the momentum integral equation lies in ability to obtain approximate

Approximate velocity profiles are used with momentum integral equation

Accuracy of results depends on how closely the shape of the assumed

Consider general velocity profile as a function of dimensionless coordinate

Typical approximate boundary layer profile

Re xcr 2 105 to Re xcr 3 106

For calculation use:

Turbulent spots and the transition

Turbulent boundary layer velocity

Fluid (m2/s) Xcr (m) Cr (m)

Structure of turbulent boundary layer is complex, random and irregular

Laminar boundary layer flow Turbulent boundary layer flow

Flat plate drag coefficient is a function of Rel and relative roughness /l