Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
The close-packed planes in the HCP unit cell; (0001) and (0002)
planes of the HCP structure (special name: basal planes)
Stacking sequence: ABABAB.
Atoms on plane B, the (0002) plane, fit into the valleys between
atoms on plane A, the bottom (0001) plane. If another plane identical
in orientation to plane A is placed in the valleys of plane B directly
above plane A, the HCP structure is created.
All of the possible close-packed planes are parallel to one another.
FCC Structure
In the FCC structure, close-packed planes are of the form {111}.
When parallel (111) planes are stacked, atoms in plane B fit over
valleys in plane A and atoms in plane C fit over valleys in both
planes A and B. The fourth plane fits directly over atoms in plane A.
Stacking sequence: ABCABCABC
Slide 15
Slide 16
Ionic materials must have crystal structures that ensure
electrical neutrality, yet permit ions of different sizes to be
packed efficiently.
Ionic crystal structures can be viewed as close-packed
structures of anions.
Anions form tetrahedra or octahedra, allowing the cations to
fit into their appropriate interstitial sites.
The crystal structures of ionically bonded compounds often
can be described by placing the anions at the normal lattice
points of a unit cell, with the cations then located at one or
more of the interstitial.
The ratio of the sizes of the ionic radii of anions and cations
influences both the manner of packing and the coordination
number.
The radii of atoms and ions are different.
As a general rule, anions are larger than cations.
Cations, having acquired a positive charge by losing
electrons, are expected to be smaller.
The coordination number for cations is the number of nearest
anions and vice versa.
The overall material has to be electrically neutral.
If the charges on the anion and the cation are identical and
the coordination number for each ion is identical to ensure
a proper balance of charge, then the compound will have a
formula AX (A: cation, X: anion).
VE of cation is +2 and anion is -1, then twice as many
anions must be present, and the formula is AX2.
The structure of the AX2 compound must ensure that the
coordination number of the cation is twice the
coordination number of the anion.
As a rule, the coordination polyhedra (formed by the close
packing of anions) will share corners, as opposed to faces
or edges.
This is because in corner sharing polyhedra, electrostatic
repulsion between cations is reduced considerably and this
leads to the formation of a more stable crystal structure.
Compared to metals, ceramic structures are more complex.
The radius ratio for Na and Cl ions is
In the Laue method, which was the first diffraction method ever
used, the specimen is in the form of a single crystal. A beam of
white radiation consisting of x-rays of different wavelengths is
used. Each diffracted beam has a different wavelength.
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that have high
energies and short wavelengthswavelengths on the order of
the atomic spacings for solids.
When a beam of x-rays impinges on a solid material, a portion
of this beam will be scattered in all directions by the electrons
associated with each atom or ion that lies within the beams
path.
Louis de Broglie theorized that electrons behave like waves.
In electron diffraction, we make use of high-energy (100,000
to 400,000 eV) electrons. These electrons are diffracted from
electron transparent samples of materials. The electron beam
that exits from the sample is also used to form an image of the
sample.
A 100,000 eV electron has a wavelength of about 0.004 nm!
This ultra-small wavelength of high-energy electrons allows a
transmission electron microscope(TEM) to simultaneously
image the microstructure at a very fine scale.
Another advantage is the high spatial resolution. Using TEM,
it is possible to determine differences between different
crystalline regions and between amorphous and crystalline
regions at very small length scales (110 nm).
TEM also allow chemical mapping of elements in a given material.
Some of the disadvantages associated with TEM include
(a) the time consuming preparation of samples that are almost
transparent to the electron beam;
(b) considerable amount of time and skill are required for
analysis of the data from a thin, three-dimensional sample, that is
represented in a two-dimensional image and diffraction pattern;
(c) only a very small volume of the sample is examined; and
(d) the equipment is relatively expensive and requires great care
in use.
For a crystalline solid, when the periodic and repeated
arrangement of atoms is perfect or extends throughout
the entirety of the specimen without interruption, the
result is a single crystal. All unit cells interlock in the
same way and have the same orientation.
May exist in nature, but they may also be produced
artificially. They are ordinarily difficult to grow, because
the environment must be carefully controlled.
If the extremities of a single crystal are permitted to grow
without any external constraint, the crystal will assume a
regular geometric shape having flat faces, as with some
of the gem stones; the shape is indicative of the crystal
structure.
Most crystalline solids are composed of a collection of many
small crystals or grains; such materials are termed
polycrystalline.
Small crystals or nuclei form at various positions. These have
random crystallographic orientations, as indicated by the
square grids. The small grains grow by the successive addition
from the surrounding liquid of atoms to the structure of each.
The extremities of adjacent grains impinge on one another as
the solidification process approaches completion. The
crystallographic orientation varies from grain to grain.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF THE VARIOUS
STAGES IN THE SOLIDIFICATION OF A
POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL
Noncrystalline solids lack a systematic and regular arrangement
of atoms over relatively large atomic distances. Sometimes such
materials are also called amorphous (meaning literally without
form), or super cooled liquids, inasmuch as their atomic structure
resembles that of a liquid.
An amorphous condition may be illustrated by comparison of the
crystalline and noncrystalline structures of the ceramic compound
silicon dioxide (SiO2), which may exist in both states.
Amorphous materials are characterized by atomic or molecular
structures that are relatively complex and become ordered only
with some difficulty.
Rapidly cooling through the freezing temperature favors the
formation of a noncrystalline solid, since little time is allowed for
the ordering process.