Neurophysiology

The Central Nervous System

Central Nervous
System:

Brain
Spinal cord
 Brain: a large mass of neurons, glia
and other supporting cells
Structure is soft and jelly like
Considerable weight of human brain
(app 1400 g)
 CNS Protection
Hair, skin, cranium/ tough
bony skull
Meninges
Pool of Cerebrospinal
fluid
Chemically guarded by
Blood brain barrier
Spinal cord by vertebral
column
Neuroglia (supporting cells)
 Meninges
NS (brain and spinal cord), cranial and
spinal nerves and peripheral ganglia is
covered by the tough, protective
connective sheath of tissues
(meninges)
 Consists of three layers
1. Dura matter (hard mother): thick,
tough, flexible but un stretchable outer
layer.
2. Arachnoid membrane: middle layer,
web like appearance, soft and spongy,
lies beneath the dura matter
3. Pia mater (pious mother): closely
attached to brain and spinal cord
(smaller surface blood vessels of brain
and spinal cord are contained within) as
well as following every surface
convolution.
 Meningeal Layers
Meningeal layer of the brain cushion
and protect delicate neural tissue

Figure 9-4b
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Between pia mater and arachnoid membrane
is a gap called subarachnoid space. This
space is filled with a liquid called
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Shock absorbing medium, reduced shock due
to sudden head movement
Provides a optimum and stable environment
for generating nerve impulses
Provides a medium for the exchange of
nutrients and wastes between blood and
nervous tissue
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Human brain floats in the bath of CSF
contained within the subarachnoid space. It
reduced its net weight to app 80g
Formed by selective transport across
ependymal cells
Total Volume of CSF is 125-150 ml and is
replaced > 3 times/day, flow maintained by
10 mmHg pressure gradient
Continuous process of production,
circulation and reabsorption
Path: ventricles subarachnoid space,
reabsorbed into blood in Dural sinuses
through arachnoid villi
 Ventricular system of Brain
Brain contain series of hollow,
interconnected chambers (ventricles)
filled with CSF.
Largest chamber (lateral ventricle)------
connected to 3rd ventricle (located at
the midline of the brain and its walls
divide the surrounding part of the brain
into symmetrical halves
 A bridge of neural tissues (massa
intermedia) crosses through the middle
of the 3rd ventricle and serve as
convenient reference point
The cerebral acqueduct (a long tube)
connects the 3rd ventricle with the 4th
ventricle.
 CSF extracted from blood and in
composition resembles that of blood
plasma
CSF produced by special tissues with
rich blood supply (Choroid plexus)
produced into all four ventricles.
 Blood Brain Barrier
Extensive capillaries & sinuses
Tight junctions promoted by astrocytes
Limits permeability for most molecules except O2, CO2, alcohol,
steroids, H2O
Protects brain: hormones & circulating chemicals
Protects CNS from chemical fluctuations
Prevents entry of harmful substances
Prevents entry of molecules that could act as neurotransmitters
Brain receives 15% - 20% of direct blood pumped by heart
Brain responsible for about half of bodys glucose consumption
Membrane transporters move glucose from plasma into the brain
interstitial fluid
BBB
 Brain Organization
Trillion interneurons fill the brain
Up to 200,000 synapses each
Levels of complexity
Cerebral cortex
Basal nuclei
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Brain stem
 Brain component

Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)
Basal nuclei

Thalamus
(medial) Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Cerebellum

Midbrain
Brain stem
Brain stem Pons (midbrain, pons,
and medulla)
Medulla Spinal cord
 Major Functions
Brain component

1. Sensory perception
Cerebral cortex 2. Voluntary control of movement
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

Basal nuclei 1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements
1. Relay station for all synaptic input
Thalamus
2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness
4. Role in motor control
1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature
Hypothalamus control, thirst, urine output, and food intake
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
Cerebellum
2. Enhancement of muscle tone
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity

Brain stem 1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves

(midbrain, pons, 2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers
and medulla) 3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle
Brain Overview
 The Forebrain

Telencephalon Diencephalon

1.Cerebral Cortex Thalamus

2.Limbic System
& Hypothalamus
3. Basal Ganglia
 Cerebrum
Telencephalon ----- 2 symmetrical halves ( cerebral
hemispheres) make up cerebrum
Cerebral hemispheres are covered with cerebral cortex
and contains limibic system and basal ganglia
Highly developed
Makes up about 80% of total brain weight (largest
portion of brain)
Inner core houses basal nuclei
Outer surface is highly convoluted cerebral cortex
Highest, most complex integrating area of the brain
Plays key role in most sophisticated neural functions
 Cerebral Cortex
Structure: greatly convoluted
Convolutions consisted of sulci (small
grooves), fissures (large grooves) and gyri
(bulges between adjcent sulci and fissures)
Three specializations
Sensory areas - sensory input translated
into perception
Motor areas - direct skeletal muscle
movement
Association areas - integrate information
from sensory and motor areas, can direct
voluntary behaviors
 Cerebral Cortex
Each half of cortex divided into four major lobes
Occipital lobe - carries out initial processing of visual input

Temporal lobe - initial reception of sound sensation, taste, smell

Parietal lobe - somatosensory processing (touch, pressure, pain,

temperature, position, movement, vibration

Frontal lobe responsible for

Voluntary motor activity
Speaking ability
Elaboration of thought
 Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Located in the postcentral
gyrus, this area:
Receives information from
the skin and skeletal
muscles
Exhibits spatial
discrimination
Somatosensory homunculus
caricature of relative
amounts of cortical tissue
devoted to each sensory
function
 Primary Motor Cortex
Located in the precentral
gyrus
Composed of pyramidal
cells whose axons make up
the corticospinal tracts
Allows conscious control of
precise, skilled, voluntary
movements
Motor homunculus
caricature of relative
amounts of cortical tissue
devoted to each motor
function
 Language
Primary areas of cortical specialization for language
Brocas area governs speaking ability
Wernickes area
Concerned with language comprehension
Responsible for formulating coherent patterns of speech

Figure 9-23: Cerebral processing of spoken and visual language

Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Figure 9-15
Function of Lobes
Brain Function: Cerebral Lateralization
Each lobe has special functions

Figure 9-16
 a. Telencephalon

Cerebral Cortex
Schematic Linking of
Various Regions of the
Cortex
 Basal Nuclei
Act by modifying ongoing
activity in motor pathways
Primary functions
Regulates muscle tone
throughout the body
Selecting and maintaining
purposeful motor activity while
suppressing useless or
unwanted patterns of
movement
Helping monitor and
coordinate slow, sustained
contractions, especially those
related to posture and support
Controls large automatic
movement
 Basal Ganglia:

Collection of sub- cortical nuclei in fore

brain
Major parts are caudate nucleus,
putamen and globus pallidus
Function is control of movement
b. Diencephalon
Thalamus
Final relay point for
ascending sensory
information
Contains two lobes
connected with a
bridge of gray
matter (Massa
intermedia)
Several nuclei in
thalamus
http://www.driesen.com/diencephalon.htm
1. Lateral geniculate neuclei (visual
function)
2. Medial geniculate neuclei (auditory
function)
3. Ventro lateral nucleus (motor function)
Coordinates the activities of the cerebral
cortex and basal nuclei
Domain-specific information processing
 Hypothalamus
Receives indirect sensory
inputs from all sensory
systems
Sends neural outputs to
various motor control
nuclei
Sends neural outputs to
sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
systems
Sends both neural and
hormonal outputs to
pituitary
 Control of endocrine system
Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary
gland (bodys Oxytocin
master gland) (ejection of milk
Gonadotropin- and uterine
releasing hormone contraction at the
(Gonadotropic
time of child birth
hormone) important
in reproductive Vasopressin:
physiology and regulate urine
behavior, release of output by the
sex hormones kidney
 Hypothalamus
Controls somatic motor activities at the
subconscious level
Controls autonomic function
Coordinates activities of the endocrine and nervous
systems
Secretes hormones
Produces emotions and behavioral drives
Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
Regulates body temperature
Coordinates circadian cycles of activity
4Fs: feeding, fighting, fleeing, and reproductive
behavior
2. Mid Brain

Mesencephalon

Tectum

Tegmentum
 a. Tectum
Superior colliculi: part of visual system
Inferior colliculi: part of auditory
system
Appear like four bumps on the dorsal
surface of the brain
 b. Tegmentum
Portion beneath the tectum
Areas
Reticular formation: 90 nuclei, sleep and arousal,
attention, muscle tonus, movement and vital reflexes
(manage internal body organs e.g. heart beat, blood
pressure, swallowing, stomach activity
Periaqueductal gray matter: control sequence of
movements, fighting and mating behaviors
Red nucleus and substantia nigra: components of
motor system. Parkinsons disease
 3. Hindbrain

Metencephalon Mylencephalon

Medulla
cerebellum
oblongata

pons
 Cerebellum
Basic functions: coordination, balance, motor learning, etc.
Vestibulocerebellum balance and control of eye movement
Spinocerebellum enhances muscle tone and coordinates skilled
voluntary movement important in synchronization and timing
Receives input concerning desired action from motor cortex
Receives feedback concerning actual action from proprioceptors, vestibular
apparatus, eyes
Compares inputs and sends adjustments or corrective signals to motor tracts
Cerebrocerebellum planning and initiation of voluntary activity by
providing input to the cortical motor areas also involved in procedural
memories
 Brain Stem: Pons & Medulla
An important link between spinal cord and higher brain levels, relays motor and
sensory impulses between other higher parts of the brain and spinal cord
Midbrain eye movement control
Pons (sleep and arousal)
Medulla (regulation of cardio-vescular system, respiration and skeletal muscle
tonus)
Cranial Nerves

Table 9-1: The Cranial Nerves

 Pons
Sensory and motor nuclei for four cranial nerves
Nuclei that help control respiration
Nuclei and tracts linking the cerebellum with the
brain stem, cerebrum and spinal cord
 Medulla oblongata
Contains relay stations and reflex centers
Cardiovascular and respiratory rhythmicity centers
Cardiovascular center - regulates rate and force of heartbeat
and vasoconstriction/dilation
Respiratory center - regulates basic breathing rhythm
Reticular formation begins in the medulla oblongata and
extends into more superior portions of the brainstem
 Reticular Activating System
Network in brain stem
Arousal, sleep, pain, &
muscle tone
Ascending fiber sends
signals upward
Arouses and activates
cerebral cortex
Controls overall degree
of cortical alertness or
level of consciousness:
maximum alertness
wakefulness
sleep
coma