Chap04C Orthophoto

Materi kuliah GD3204 Fotogrametri I, Semester II-2011/2012
Chapter 06C
Orthophotography and
Digital Mono Plotting
Compiled & developed by
Saptomo H Mertotaroeno, Ir., M.Sc.
saptomo@gd.itb.ac.id
KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

Fakultas Ilmu dan Teknologi Kebumian
Institut Teknologi Bandung
Contents (1)
Introduction
Principles of Orthophotography
Analog Orthophoto
Digital Orthophoto
The building Lean Effect
Sources of Error in Digital Orthophoto
Assembling of an OrthoMap : Image Mosaicking
Orthophotomaps
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Contents (2)
Problems /Exercises
References
Tugas No.

INTRODUCTION

What is this Chapter all about ?
Orthophoto
(orthoimage)
Orthorectification process
(a) Portion of a perspective
photo taken in Oklahoma.
(Note the apparent
crookedness of the power
line caused by relief
displacement.)
(b) Orthophoto of same
portion of perspective
photo shown in (a).
(Note straightness of the
power line after relief
displacement is eliminated.)
(Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey.)

In the aerial photograph at left, a pipeline trending southeast to northwest is seen as a
curvy line due to distortions caused by the terrain. In the DOQ at right, the distortions
have been corrected, and the pipeline is seen in its true state as an almost straight line.

Orthoimage
An orthoimage is
an image based
on an
orthographic
projection, rather
than the
perspective
projection of a
regular frame
photograph. ()

Relief Displacement
In a frame image, the rays
of light pass through a single
point (the perspective cen-
ter) before intersecting the
image plane.
Points at the same horizon- Perspective and
tal location but at different orthographic image
geometry, showing the
elevations (such as the top effect of relief
and bottom of a building) displacement
will be imaged at different
locations in the image.
This is called relief dis-
placement.

Scales
The scale of the frame
image varies with the ele-
vation of the terrain, due
to the central projection.
In an orthographic proj-
ection, the projecting rays
are perpendicular to a ho-
rizontal reference plane.
Changing the elevation of
a point does not affect its
Scale is not constant on aerial photo.
projection, so the scale of
an orthoimage is constant.
Scale is constant on orthophoto.

Line Map vs Orthophoto
An orthophoto is a photograph showing images of objects in their
true orthographic positions.
Orthophotos are therefore geometrically equivalent to convention-
al line and symbol planimetric maps which also show true ortho-
graphic positions of objects.
The major difference between an orthophoto and a map is that an
orthophoto is composed of images of features, whereas maps uti-
lize lines and symbols plotted to scale to depict features.
Because they are planimetrically correct, orthophoto can be used
as maps for making direct measurements of distances, angles, posi-
tions, and areas without making correction for image displacement-
s.
Photograph, Map, and Orthophoto
Orthophoto
Vertical Photograph
(perspective photo)
Map

Orthophoto and GIS
Orthophotos are widely used in connection with GISs, where
they serve as planimetric frames of reference for performing
analysis, and are also used for generating layers of information
for databases.
The digital orthophoto base layer is ideal

for updating vector data sets in a GIS.
Result of the orthophoto mosaic / map

after identification and classification.

PRINCIPLES OF
ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHY

Principles of Orthophotography (1)
Orthophotos are produced from
perspective photos (usually aerial
photos) through a process called
differential rectification, which
eliminates image displacements
due to photographic tilt and ter-
rain relief.
The process is essentially the
same as simple rectification, ex-
cept that is performed indepen-
dently at myriad individual, tiny
surface patches or differential e-
lements.

Principles of
Orthophotography (2)
In this way, rather than rectify

the photograph to some averag-
e scale (which does not correct
for relief displacement), each
differential elements is rectified
to a common scale.

Types, Stages, and Mosaicking
Types of orthophoto :
Prior to the age of digital photogrammetry, complicated optical-me-
chanical devices were employed to produce orthophoto from film
diapositives. (analog/photographic orthophoto)
Modern orthophoto are produced digitally, using scanned photo-
graphs and a DEM as the fundamental input information.
Stages of orthoimages production :
Obtaining or generating a DEM of the area,
This DEM is then used to remove the displacement effects from the
perspective image by reprojection.
Orthoimages are often produced from more than one source image to
obtain the required coverage for the final product. (mosaicking
needed)
Orthophoto and Relief Displacement
Selecting only the center
portion of images mini-
mizes the relief displace-
ment shown by buildings
or elevated objects.
Another way to reduce
the relief displacement
is to use lenses with
longer focal lengths than
the standard 6-inch lens.

ANALOG ORTHOPHOTO

Prinsip Dasar Ortofoto Analog
Distorsi Akibat Undulasi Dikoreksi dengan panduan
model 3D atau DTM
pixel(celah)
Distorsi Foto Akibat Pergeseran Relief Topografi dari salah
p'
satu foto p''
input
data tinggi profil pemandu
pixel(celah) model 3D
pemandu scanning
dH
Absolute
Mekanisme
koreksi
oriented
P
Skala ( ) model
Posisi (x,y)
(bentuk &
ukuran)
ortofoto
P'
pixel(celah)
setelah koreksi
diproyeksikan
membentuk ortofoto

Block Diagram of Analog Orthophoto
Right Left Scanned
photo photo (differential) image
image of resampling
left photo
Inner Inner
orientation orientation Geometric image to
groundels
correction for
scanned image
Relative
(analog means)
orientation Left photo
Ground scanning
or minor collinearity Exposing the
control Absolute corrected image
points orientation filling the groundels
DTM
Analog
Model profiling in Y-direction, Photographic
(photographic)
(X,Y,Z) processes
steps in X-direction orthophoto
Analog Orthophoto Instruments
3rd projector
T-64 Orthophotoscope

Fot ogr amet r i Konvensional
Persiapan
Ortofoto Analog
(Optis-Mekanis) Pengukuran Pemotretan
Kontrol Udara
dalam Proses
Pemetaan Fotogrametrik Triangulasi
secara Konvensional Udara
Restitusi Restitusi
Trial and error orientation Foto Tunggal Foto Stereo
Scanning/Profiling, Exposure
Rektifikasi Orthofoto
& Photographic Processes Plotting
Planimetri
Penyusunan
Controlled Mosaics Mosaik Plotting Kontur Pengecekan
Lapangan
Naming, Meta Data, Grid & Graticule, etc. Kartografi
Planimetric or Topographic Photomap Peta Foto Peta Garis

DIGITAL ORTHOPHOTO

Definitions
A digital orthophoto is nothing Color orthophoto
more than an orthoimage
stored in digital form.
The image consists of an array
of pixels that record the ground
reflectance values for that pixel.
The resolution of the image is
dictated, in part, by the size of
the pixels and as we increase
the resolution to finer levels,
the size of the image in the
computer increases accordingly.

Data Sources for Orthorectification
There are basically four data sources needed to create a digital
orthophoto [FGDC, 1999]. These are :
1. An unrectified raster image
file acquired by either scan-
ning an image or collected
directly by a digital sensor,
(1.) Absolute (3.)
2. A digital elevation model
(DEM) or digital terrain mo-
del (DTM) of the same area
covered by the imagery,
(2.)
3. Ground control, or exterior
orientation elements of the
image, and
4. Sensor calibration data.
Konsep Dasar Proses Rektifikasi
Diferensial secara Digital (1)
Gambar di samping ini memperlihat- (XL ,YL ,ZL , M)

kan kondisi kesegarisan untuk satu titik
element tanah (groundel) P dalam
DEM.
Koordinat groundel titik P (XP ,YP ,ZP) di-
dapat dari DEM.
Dengan koordinat tanah titik P, dan
pa-rameter orientasi luar dari foto,
persa-maan kesegarisan dapat
dihitung untuk menentukan koordinat
foto titik p (xp ,yp).

Konsep Dasar Proses Rektifikasi
Diferensial secara Digital (2)
Koordinat foto titik p dalam sistem

(XL ,YL ,ZL , M)
vektor ditransformasi ke dalam sistem
koordinat raster citra dijital.
Koordinat raster (baris dan kolom)
yang didapat tidak berupa bilangan
bulat, karena itu resampling diperlu-
kan untuk mendapatkan digital num-
ber dari groundel titik P.
Ulangi seluruh proses di atas untuk
seluruh titik dalam array DEM.

Digital Orthoimage Production
using Backward Projection
(XL ,YL ,ZL , M) Each pixel in the orthoimage is pro-
jected onto the terrain model and
the resulting object space point is
projected back into the perspective
image to determine the corres-
ponding gray value.
Image Resampling
Collinearity Interpolation is done in the perspec-
(x,y) raster photo coord. (X,Y,Z) (x,y)
tive image.
Frame photograph
(Z) object coord. DEM Interpolation

DEM/DTM
Z Z(X,Y)
(X,Y) raster object coord.

(x,y, gray value)
(X,Y, gray value)

Collinearity relationship for a DEM point P and its
corresponding image p.
(X,Y, gray value)
(X,Y) raster object coord.
Schematic representation of digital orthophoto

production process.

Block Diagram of Digital Orthophoto
Parameters of Exterior Camera
groundel DEM/DTM orientation calibration
Area boundaries. (X, Y, Z)
X, Y.
parameters data
(, , , M)
DEM/DTM
Call a groundel Collinearity
interpolation
(Xij , Yij) (xij ,yij) (Xij ,Yij ,Zij)
Zij = Z(Xij , Yij)
Next groundel
No
End of Single
Image resampling
groundel digital image
DNij = DN(xij ,yij)
? (x, y, DN)
Yes Digital orthophoto
(Xij , Yij , DNij)
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Black & White Orthophoto
The USGS DOQ
USGS digital orthophoto quadrangle

(DOQ)
The specifications of a standard USGS

digital orthophoto

03/05/12
Digital Orthoimage Production

using Forward Projection
Each pixel in the original perspective
image is projected into object space
and the resulting object space point
is projected into the orthoimage.
This results in irregularly spaced po-
ints in the orthoimage and requires
interpolation to produce a regular
Satellite image
array of pixels.

THE BUILDING LEAN EFFECT

The Geometry of the Building Lean
Problem in Orthoimage Production
The points at the top and
bottom of the building,
which have the same hori-
zontal position, should be
projected to the same point
in the orthoimage.
This is possible only if the
building height is included
in the DEM used to produce
the orthoimage; otherwise,
the building points will be
projected to the terrain
surface, resulting in leaning
buildings in the orthoimage.

Orthoimage showing the effect of buildings
not being included in the DEM

The Building Lean Effect (1)
The building lean effect is caused
because the wrong pixels will be
extracted from the source image.
This building lean effect can be
particularly noticeable in urban a-
reas.()
Some orthoimage production sys-
tems use an elevation model con-
taining building outlines, either
automatically derived or manu-
ally delineated.
This problem can be minimized graphy, and by using only the
by using long focal length photo- central part of the photo,

The Building Lean Effect (2)
since relief displacement in-
creases with shorter focal
length and with the radial dis-
tance from the image nadir po-
int.
Points that have multiple elevati-
ons, such as a multilevel freeway
interchange, cannot be correctly
orthorectified unless the photo-
graphic view is from directly over-
head.
This problem can be overcome
with 3-D mapping.

Orthophoto vs True Orthophoto
Regular Orthophoto True Orthophoto

SOURCES OF ERROR IN DIGITAL
ORTHOPHOTO

Sources of Error in Digital Orthophoto
Scanner error (which is minimal)
Control error
Aerial Triangulation Error
Interior and Absolute Orientation Error
DEM/DTM error (has the most profound effect
of the accuracy of the orthophoto)
DEM/DTM spatial resolution
Spatial resolution of original image

Image quality of digital orthophoto is dependent upon a num-
ber of production components such as [Manzer, 1996; Triathon,
1998]:
camera quality
diapositive/negative sharpness
photo to orthophoto map scale magnification
orthophoto diapositive density range or bits in the scanner scan pixel
(radiometric resolution)
sample scan rate in micrometers or dots per inch (dpi) and the photo
scale
rectification procedures
final pixel size in ground units (pixel ground resolution)
electronic auto-dodging or radiometric image smoothing after the
rectification process
selection of control points
DEM data density

ASSEMBLING OF AN ORTHOMAP :
IMAGE MOSAICKING

Analog Orthophoto Mosaicking
Analog orthophoto mosaicking could be divided into three main tasks
: (full-controlled mosaicking)
image control and registration
image attachment and detail matching
image tone matching.
Preparing a control underlay first, and then attaching each orthophoto
by its controls points, and then simultaneously trying to best-mean-fit
both the control points and image features.
Analog orthophoto images were generated at final map scales, which
meant a large work space was required, and the task of laying down
mosaics was time-consuming and exacting.
Mosaic handling was indeed a problem, especially if there was no
reproduction facility in the same workplace.

Digital Orthophoto Mosaicking
In digital orthophoto mosaicking, image control, registration, attach-
ment and matching are all embodied in a single step, where the i-
mages are geocoded to a common coordinate system.
Image attach commands : the image coordinate system is the control
underlay, and the image geocode acts as the control points.
It is no longer necessary to manually obtain a best-mean-fit of image
features.
If the surface imaged features (macro relief) do not fit, there is almost
certainly an error in an individual image orientation (for example, bun-
dle parameters not obtained from an AT).
Tall object features (micro relief) will still have displacement, but the
Technician can create a mosaic joint-line (straight or irregular) to avoid
such features.

Digital Orthophoto Mosaics
Ortho-rectified aerial photographic mosaic
Ortho-rectification and mosaicing of aerial or satellite images

Orthophoto Tone Matching
Orthophoto tone matching : the technician simply adjust the
brightness, contrast and gamma values in adjoining images
(differentially and in real-time) and view the effects on the
monitor until a match is achieved.
If an acceptable match is not possible, then an automatic tone
averaging (also known as blending or feathering) command can be
used to merge one image into the next by averaging the pixel value
(PV) at the prescribed image overlap.
The image mosaics can be clipped into a map-by-map format, or

delivered as seamless image coverage of an entire project area.

(Simple Orthophoto Mosaic) (Color Balanced Orthophoto Mosaic)

ORTHOPHOTOMAPS

Orthophotomaps
Orthophotomaps prepared from
orthophotos offer significant ad-
vantages over aerial photos, and
line and symbol maps because
they posses the advantages of
both. ()
1. Orthophotos have the pictorial
qualities of air photos because the
images of unlimited number of
ground objects can be recognized
and identified.
2. Because of the planimetric cor-
rectness with which images are
shown, measurements may be taken
directly from orthophotos just as
from line maps.

Orthophotomap
Production
Process
Orthophotomap

Topographic Map Revision
in Digital Photogrammetric
Environment
From Input Data to Ortho-Imagery

is the
Orthophotomap Production Process
(Automatic)
(Automatic)
(Automatic)

3D Pictorial View
When digital orthophotos are
stored in a computer in their nu-
meric form, they can be incor-
porated with a regular grid DEM
having the same ground reso-
lution to produce 3D pictorial
views. ()
This is achieved by assigning the
brightness values of the orthopho-
to pixels to corresponding cells of
the DEM and manipulating the
view angle.

3-D Pictorial View of Terrain Obtained
by Combining a DEM and Orthophoto

Topographic orthophotomap of
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska.
(Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey)
Orthophotomaps with
contours and spot heights.
Meta Data
Scale 1 : 24,000
Contour interval 25 feet.
Datum is mean sea level.
Depth curve and sounding in feet,
datum is mean lower low water.
Magnetic north, astronomic north,
and geodetic north.
Etc. (like ordinary topographic line
map)

An orthophoto with contour lines superimposed. This looks like an ordinary photo, but all
topographic displacement has been removed. (Courtesy Wild Heerbrugg Instruments, Inc.)

Block Diagram of Topographic Orthophotomaps Production
Topographic
Orthophoto
Map
Cartographic Processes
Contour Interpolation Program
Contour Editing

DIGITAL MONO PLOTTING

(Rektifikasi Diferensial Analitis)
Prinsip Dasar Digital Mono Plotting Konsep digital mono plotting
mirip dengan konsep ortofoto
digital, menggunakan hubungan
kolinieritas antara titik obyek
ditanah (X,Y,Z) dengan titik
tersebut di foto (x,y).
Data input berupa foto tunggal,
parameter orientasi luar dan DTM
dari daerah yang bersangkutan.
Pada proses digital mono plotting
yang diekstrak berupa garis/arc,
dan hasilnya adalah peta garis .

Digital Mono Plotting System

DMP Transformation Principles
Each point/line in the original
(XL ,YL ,ZL , M) perspective image is projected into
object space and the resulting object
space point is projected into the
linemap.
DEM interpolation
(x,y) vector photo coord.
Z Z(x,y)
(Z) object coord.

DEM/DTM
Reprojection equations
(x,y,Z) (X,Y)
Line map
points/line (X,Y) vector object coord.

Rektifikasi Diferensial Analitis
Definisi : suatu sistem untuk menghasilkan peta garis digital planime-
trik dari satu foto udara tunggal.
Data masukan :
1. Foto udara tunggal (analog, digital),
2. Peta yang akan direvisi (analog, digital),
3. Data unsur orientasi dalam kamera udara (laporan kalibrasi kamera),
Untuk aplikasi revisi peta :
Identifikasi titik kontrol tanah, dengan identifikasi detail planimetrik
di peta (TKP) dan di foto (TKF);
Digitasi foto : Fiducial Mark, Titik Kontrol Foto (TKF), Detail Planime-
trik;
Digitasi peta : Titik Kontrol Peta (TKP), Kontur dan Titik Tinggi (DEM);
Data baru hanya foto udara atau foto terestris.

Rektifikasi Diferensial Analitis
Perangkat keras :
Komputer, XY-digitizer, dan XY-plotter (analog), atau
Komputer, XY-scanner, dan XY-plotter (semi-digital), atau
Komputer, dan XY-plotter (fully digital).
Perangkat lunak :
Digitasi, Editing, dan Plotting;
Transformasi Koordinat (orientasi dalam, digitizer tanah);
Space Resection, Persamaan Kesegarisan (X,Y,Z x,y,Z);
Interpolasi data DEM,
Persamaan Reproyeksi (rektifikasi diferensial).

Blok Diagram Digital Mono Plotting
Laporan Kalibrasi
Foto Udara Tunggal Peta Topografi
Kamera
Digitasi foto : Titik kontrol peta Digitasi peta :

1.Fiducial Mark, 1.Titik Kontrol Peta,
2.Titik Kontrol Foto, 2.Kontur dan titik tinggi.
3. Detail Planimetrik. DEM
Orientasi Dalam
(xy-foto)
Space Resection Peta Garis

(orientasi luar) Planimetrik
Interpolasi tinggi titik detail XY-plotting

(x,y,Z)
Persamaan reproyeksi untuk titik detail

(x,y,Z) (X,Y)

PROBLEMS / EXERCISES

References
I.S.M. International Systemap Corp., 1997. The Fundamental of Digital
Photogrammetry, Document Version 2.0/PW, Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada V6E 4A2,.
McGlone, J.C., ed., 2004. Manual of Photogrammetry, 5th ed., Ameri-can
Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Maryland 20814, USA,
1151 p.
Mikhail, E.M., J.S. Bethel, and J.C. McGlone, 2001. Introduction to Modern
Photogrammetry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 479 p.
Wolf, P.R., and B.A. Dewitt, 2000. Elements of Photogrammetry : with
Application in GIS, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 608p.
Internet browsing.
Aknowledgements
Some data, information, illustrations, and diagrams in this presentation are quoted
from .ppt files developed by Dr. Ir. Bobby S. Dipokusumo, M.Sc.

Tugas No.
Kerjakan soal-soal dari Problems
Waktu : 2 minggu

Materi kuliah GD3204 Fotogrametri I, Semester II-2011/2012
End of Chapter 06C
Orthophotography and
Compiled & developed by
Saptomo H Mertotaroeno, Ir., M.Sc.
saptomo@gd.itb.ac.id
KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

Fakultas Ilmu dan Teknologi Kebumian
Institut Teknologi Bandung

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The digital orthophoto base layer is ideal

Result of the orthophoto mosaic / map

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In this way, rather than rectify

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Naming, Meta Data, Grid & Graticule, etc. Kartografi

Planimetric or Topographic Photomap Peta Foto Peta Garis

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Gambar di samping ini memperlihat- (XL ,YL ,ZL , M)

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Koordinat foto titik p dalam sistem

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(Z) object coord. DEM Interpolation

(X,Y) raster object coord.

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(X,Y, gray value)

(X,Y) raster object coord.

Schematic representation of digital orthophoto

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USGS digital orthophoto quadrangle

The specifications of a standard USGS

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Digital Orthoimage Production

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Ortho-rectified aerial photographic mosaic

Ortho-rectification and mosaicing of aerial or satellite images

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The image mosaics can be clipped into a map-by-map format, or

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