Reptiles

Reptiles
First truly terrestrial
vertebrates
~7000 species
worldwide
~300 species in U.S.
and Canada
Reptiles
Probably best
remembered for what
they once were,
rather than what they
are now
Mesozoic era - age of
reptiles
Dominant group for
>150 millions years
Reptiles
12 or so principal
groups of reptiles
evolved
Only 4 groups remain
today
Order Squamata
Snakes and lizards
>5800 species
Most successful
group
Order Crocodilia
Crocodiles, alligators,
caiman
~25 species
Have survived for 200
million years
Today: concerns that
humans may drive
them to extinction
 Order Chelonia (Testudines)
Turtles
~330 species
Ancient group that
survived, remained
mostly unchanged
from early ancestors
 Order Rhynchocephalia
Snout head or tuatara
Only 1 species
From New Zealand -
sole surviving species
of ancestral stock
 Reptilian Characteristics
Tough, dry scaly skin
Protection against
desiccation, physical
injury
Thin epidermis shed
periodically
Much thicker dermis
with chromatophores
 Reptilian Characteristics
Dermis converted into
snakeskin, alligator
leather for shoes,
purses, and so on
Scales of keratin
(epidermal)
Not homologous to
bony, dermal fish
scales
 Reptilian Characteristics
Crocodilian scales
remain throughout life
Grow gradually to
replace wear
 Reptilian Characteristics
In snakes and lizards,
new scales grow
beneath old
Old scales shed with
old skin
 Reptilian Characteristics
Turtles add new
layers of keratin
under old layers of
the plate-like scutes
(modified scales)
 Shedding
Snakes turn old skin
(scales, epidermis)
inside out when
shedding
 Shedding
Lizards split skin and
leave it right side out,
or slough it off in
pieces
Amniotic Egg
Chorioallantoic
membrane
Amniotic Egg
Reptiles are able to
lay their eggs in
sheltered locations on
land
Young hatch as lung-
breathing juveniles,
not aquatic larvae
Amniotic Egg
Amniotic egg widened
division between
amphibians and
reptiles
Probably greatly
contributed to decline
of amphibians and
rise of reptiles
Reptile Jaws
Reptile jaws designed
for crushing prey
Fish, amphibian jaws
designed for quick
closure, but little force
after
Reptile jaw muscles
larger, longer,
arranged for better
mechanical
advantage
Reptile Copulatory Organ
Copulatory organ
permitting internal
fertilization
Internal fertilization
required for a shelled
egg
Copulatory organ
formed from an
evagination of cloaca
Reptile Circulation
More efficient
circulatory system,
higher blood pressure
All reptiles have at
least an incomplete
separation of the
ventricles
Flow patterns prevent
mixing
Reptile Circulation
Crocodilians have two
completely separated
ventricles
All reptiles have two
functionally separate
circulations
 Reptile Lungs
Improved lungs
Depend almost
exclusively on lungs
for gas exchange
Supplemented by
pharyngeal
membrane respiration
in some aquatic
turtles
 Reptile Lungs
Lungs have larger
respiratory surface
than in amphibians
Air sucked into lungs
rather then forced in
by mouth muscles
Negative pressure
Skin breathing
completely
abandoned
 Reptile Kidney
Kidneys more
advanced
(metanephric)
Very efficient at
conserving water
Excretes uric acid
(rather than urea,
ammonia)
A semisolid paste
 Better Body Support

Limbs better design for walking on land

More ventral, less lateral
Many dinosaurs walked on only hindlimbs
 Nervous System

Much more advanced - relatively larger

cerebrum
CNS connections more advanced - permit
complex behaviors not found in amphibians
 Nervous System

Sense organs generally well-developed

Hearing generally poorly developed in most
 Order Chelonia
Turtles
Very ancient group
Little change in
morphology since
Triassic period
 Order Chelonia
Body enclosed in
shell
Dorsal carapace
Ventral plastron
 Order Chelonia
Thoracic vertebrae
and ribs built into
shell
Shell of two layers
Inner of bone
Outer of keratin
New keratin
deposited under old
as turtle grows, ages
 Order Chelonia
Jaws lack teeth
Equipped with tough,
horny plates for
gripping, chewing
food
 Order Chelonia
Respiration poses a
problem
Shell prevents
expansion of chest for
breathing
Adapted to use
certain abdominal,
pectoral muscles as a
diaphragm
 Order Chelonia
Air drawn in by
contracting limb flank
muscles to make
body cavity larger
Exhalation also active
- shoulder muscles
contracted, viscera
compressed, air
forced out of lungs
 Order Chelonia
Deformable plastron
in snappers allows
some elastic recovery
during exhalation
Compressive force of
water against body
also can force air out
 Order Chelonia
Many water turtles
acquire enough O2
when inactive by
pumping water in and
out of mouth
Pharyngeal breathing
Can stay submerged
for extended periods
Must lung breathe
more frequently when
active
 Order Chelonia

Nervous system - tiny brain

Typical of most reptiles
Never exceeding 1% of body weight, but
cerebrum larger than in amphibians
Turtle can learn, as quickly as a rat, to run a
maze
Order Chelonia
Have both middle
& inner ear, but
sound perception
is poor
Turtles are virtually
mute
Tortoises may
grunt or roar
Order Chelonia
Poor hearing
compensated for
by:
Good sense of
smell
Acute vision
Color perception as
good as that of
humans
Order Chelonia
Mating & reproduction
Many varieties of
courtship
Males of aquatic
species may swim
around looking for
proper leg stripe
pattern
Pheromones also
Males use claws
Order Chelonia
Terrestrial species
may vocalize
Males may track
females
(pheromones) for
days
Order Chelonia
Males may mark
territory with fecal
pellets
Courtship involves
rubbing limbs against
scent glands
(underside of jaw)
and sniffing
Order Chelonia
Biting, ramming,
hooking are directed
at other males
Biting - head & limbs
Ramming - rearing
up, smacking shells
Hooking - bulldozing
under plastron to flip
or hurry
Order Chelonia
Turtles are
oviparous
Fertilization is
internal, and all
species bury eggs
in ground in nests
4 to >100 eggs
Order Chelonia
Exercise care in
constructing nest
Deposit eggs and
abandon them
Incubation 1-14
months
40-60 days most
typical
 Order Chelonia
Movements to nesting
areas very faithful
Terrestrial species
use familiarity with
area, sun
Marine species use
variety of
mechanisms to
traverse large
distances
 Order Chelonia
Earths magnetic field
Polarized light
Sun & stars
Low frequency
sounds
Green sea turtles find
Ascension Island (20 km)
in mid-Atlantic from
coastal Brazil - 2200 km
 Order Chelonia
Size - marine turtles
largest
Buoyed by aquatic
environment
May reach 2 m in
length, 725 kg in
weight
Biggest species is
leatherback
 Order Chelonia
Green sea turtle may
exceed 360 kg
Economically
valuable - heavily
exploited - rarely gets
to large size
 Order Chelonia
Land tortoises
generally not as large
as aquatic forms
Some may weigh
several hundred kg
Giant tortoises of
Galapagos Islands
among worlds largest
terrestrial turtles
 Order Chelonia
Lifespan - turtles are
most long-lived
vertebrates
Individuals of at least
5 species known to
live 100 years or
longer
Some believed to
have lived more than
150 years
 Order Chelonia
Longevity attributed to
slow rate of
metabolism
Galapagos tortoise
top speed: 300 m/hr
Reports of box turtle
caught in U.S. with
1850 carved into
plastron
Skepticism!
 Order Chelonia
Protective shell
Head, appendages
can be drawn in for
protection
Box turtles
especially good
because of hinged
plastron
 Order Chelonia
Shell not as
protective in many
species
Soft, leather-like in
softshell turtles
 Order Chelonia
Shell too small for
protection in other
species, e.g.,
snappers
Other means of
defense - ferocious,
short-tempered
Tigers of the pond
 Order Chelonia
Entirely carnivorous -
fish, frogs, ducks,
whatever they can
catch
Alligator snapper
hides on bottom and
waves worm-like
tongue to attract fish
Wholly aquatic - come
ashore only to lay
eggs
 Turtle Conservation
Slow growth, long
time to maturity
predispose many
species to risk of
extinction
Changing conditions
may increase adult
mortality, juvenile
recruitment
 Turtle Conservation
Problem severe for
large tortoises, sea
turtles
Largest, slowest-
growing
Human and animal
invasion of beaches,
isolated island
habitats
 Turtle Conservation
Herbivores compete
with tortoises for
limited vegetation
Eggs, young fall prey
to dogs, cats, rats
 Turtle Conservation
Protection of land
tortoises simpler than
protection of sea
turtles
Limited range (single
island) defines limits
where protection is
needed
 Turtle Conservation
Sea turtles range over
international, national
borders
Limited number of
breeding sites
Problems with
exploitation -
controlled or outright
ban?
 Turtle Conservation
Ocean plastics
pollution - bags look
like natural jellyfish
prey
Not enough known
about biology do
devise protective
management program
Tag a turtle? 2000 X
 Order Squamata
characterized by
scales
Lizards, snakes,
worm lizards
Most recent products
of reptile evolution
Most successful -
95% of known living
species of reptiles
 Order Squamata
Lizards began
diversifying at time
when dinosaurs were
near end of their
dominance
Were successful
because of adaptability
Adopt various body
forms, occupy various
habitats
 Order Squamata
Snakes likely arose
from group of lizards
whose descendents
include monitor lizards,
but fossil record poor
 Order Squamata
Legless character
apparently evolved as
adaptation to
burrowing lifestyle
Snakes since have
radiated into
terrestrial, aquatic,
arboreal niches
 Order Squamata
Two adaptations
characterize snakes:
Extreme body
elongation -
displacement,
rearrangement of
organs
Highly mobile jaws -
swallow prey larger
than own diameter
 Order Squamata
Two suborders:

Sauria - lizards
lizard

Serpentes - snakes
to creep
 Lizards
Very diversified group
(3300 species)
Terrestrial, burrowing,
aquatic, arboreal,
aerial
Many familiar groups:
 Lizards
Geckos

Mostly small,
nocturnal, with
adhesive toe pads
(walk anywhere)
 Lizards
Iguanas

Often bright-colored
New World lizards

Marine iguana - only

marine lizard in world
 Lizards
Skinks

Elongate bodies,
reduced limbs
 Lizards
Chameleons

Arboreal

Tongue flicked to
greater distance than
body length
Prehensile tail
Zygodactylous feet
 Lizards
Independently
moveable eyes
elevated on cones -
good eyesight -
gauge distance
accurately
 Lizards
Lizard body form not
as distinctive as other
reptiles
Many functional,
behavioral
modifications
e.g., degenerate or
absent limbs - no
good in dense grass
 Lizards
Differ from snakes:

Halves of lower jaw

firmly united at
mandibular
symphysis

Teeth, but not

developed into fangs
 Lizards
Moveable eyelids
(snake eyes covered
with permanent,
transparent cap)

Keen daylight vision

 Lizards
Size - 3 cm to 3 m

Hawaiian gecko

Komodo dragon
75 kg

Fossils: 5.5 m, >1000 kg

 Lizards
80% of lizards are
<20 g in weight
Generally
insectivorous
(opportunistic),
although some
specialists
N. Amer. horned
lizards eat only ants
 Lizards
Most large lizards are
herbivores
Trees in tropics,
ground vegetation on
oceanic islands,
seaweed in ocean
 Lizards
Monitor lizards are
exception to
vegetarians
Food of vertebrates
(birds, mammals),
invertebrates
Komodo - ambush
predator on large
mammals (deer,
goats, water buffalo)
 Lizards
Foraging strategies:

Sit and wait (insects

come to them)

Active foragers (move

to encounter prey)
 Lizards
Foraging modes
alternate at
successive levels of
food chain
Moving insect -> sit-
and-wait lizard ->
active predator
Sitting insect -> active
lizard -> sit-and-wait
predator
 Lizards
May use territorial
and courtship
behaviors
Male anoles have
gular fan (dewlap) for
conspicuous displays
Skin distended by
hyoid apparatus
 Lizards
Behaviors include:

Extending,
contracting fan
Pushups
Bobbing head
 Lizards
Territories defended
by males for access
to females (bite &
chase, but no fighting)
Females have non-
overlapping home
ranges for feeding
Male territory includes
several females -
mates with all
 Lizards
Mate by pressing
cloacal regions
together
Males grip females
neck, shoulders
Males have paired
copulatory organs -
hemipenes - to aid
sperm transfer
 Lizards
Range of reproductive
modes from oviparity
to viviparity

Skinks - eggs
retained in oviducts,
receive nutrients
across a placenta
 Lizards
All-female
(parthenogenetic)
species occur in at
least 6 families
Especially common
among racerunners
(Teiidae)
Diploids and triploids
known
 Lizards
High reproductive
potential - every
individual capable of
producing offspring
Can repopulate
habitat faster than
bisexual species after
flood, other disaster
 Lizards
Parental care

Many lizards remain

with eggs or nest site

Little if any care given

after young hatch or
are born
 Suborder Serpentes - Snakes
2300 species
10 cm long up to 10
m long
Highly specialized
body form
 Suborder Serpentes - Snakes
Entirely limbless
Lack pectoral, pelvic
girdles (except
vestige of latter in
pythons, boas)
Short, wide vertebrae
for quick lateral
undulations
Ribs improve rigidity
 Suborder Serpentes - Snakes
Rearranged internal
anatomy
Left lung reduced or
absent
Gall bladder posterior
to liver
Right kidney anterior
to left
Gonads similarly
displaced
 Suborder Serpentes - Snakes
Little modification for
various lifestyles:
Elongate for arboreal
Shorten for burrowing
Broaden for
swallowing big prey
Compress laterally for
swimming
 Snake Sense Organs
Snake, lizard eyes
different: focusing, retina
morphology
Re-evolved from
burrowing ancestors
Permanent transparent
covering - non-blinking
stare
Lack of eyeball mobility
Poor vision - except
binocular in arboreal
snakes
 Snake Sense Organs
Hearing - no obvious
external ear
No obvious response
to aerial sounds
Not deaf - have
internal ears - hearing
similar to lizards
Sensitive to vibrations
carried in ground
 Snake Sense Organs
Olfaction important,
but not in nostrils
Jacobsons organs
(vomeronasal organs)
Tongue carries scent
particles to organ
 Snake Feeding
Skull, jaws highly
specialized for feeding
Eat prey several times
their own diameter
Non-joined mandibles
Loose skull bones
Tracheal opening far
forward between
mandibles
 Snake Feeding
Prey swallowed head
first
Pulled in by teeth,
jaws, alternating side-
to-side
Contractions of neck
muscles force prey
down digestive tract
 Snake Feeding
Two ways to subdue
prey:

Constricting - grab
prey in mouth and
suffocate by looping
body coils and
tightening
 Snake Feeding
Venom - toxic
concentrations in
saliva
Neurotoxic -
blindness, paralysis
Hemolytic - ruptures
blood vessels, cells
 Snake Feeding
Poisonous snakes in 4
families
Viperidae - viper, pit
vipers (heat sensitive)
Elapidae - coral snakes
(inject venom by
chewing)
Hydrophiidae - sea
snakes
Colubridae - rear-fanged -
venom to calm, not kill
 Snake Feeding
Sea snakes have
most deadly venom

King cobra most

dangerous, largest
(5.5 m) - kill 9,000
people per year
 Snake Locomotion
4 basic types:
Lateral undulation - S-
shaped path,
pressure against
surface irregularities
 Snake Locomotion
Concertina movement
- movement upward
or along narrow
passages
Extend forward while
bracing S-shaped
loops
 Snake Locomotion
Rectilinear movement
- slow, straight-line
movement
 Snake Locomotion
Sidewinding - sandy
surfaces, body thrown
forward in loops, body
at 60 angle to line of
travel, 1 or 2 parts of
body in contact with
ground at once
 Snake Reproduction
Most oviparous - lay
eggs in protected areas
Most of remainder are
ovoviviparous
(including rattlesnakes)
Very few viviparous
Females store sperm
from single mating, can
lay several clutches
over long interval
 Order Crocodilia
Unchanged for 160
million years
Crocodiles larger, more
dangerous than
alligators
Prey drowned, ripped
into pieces by rapid
rolling
No natural enemies
 Order Crocodilia
Oviparous - lay eggs in
mass of vegetation
Guarded by mother
Incubation temperature
determines sex of
alligator hatchlings
Low - females
High - males
5:1 (M:F) in some areas
 Order Crocodilia
Vocalizations by
hatchlings cause
mother to open next,
allow hatchlings to
escape
Some adults carry
young to water
 Order Crocodilia
Mothers may guard
young in pools for
period of time to
protect them from
predators (fish,
mammals)
 Order Sphenodonta
Tuatara - single
species in New
Zealand
Lizard-like, <66 cm
Lives in burrows
Slow-growing, long-
lived (77 years)
 Order Sphenodonta
Living fossil - primitive
features identical to
fossilized forms
Primitive skull
structure
Well-developed
parietal eye with
retina, lens on top of
head (non-functional)