Coagulation-Flocculation

Particles < 20 mm size have been removed through PST

Turbidity of water after Primary Sedimentation is still 30 60 NTU

Turbidity caused by particles < 20 mm size, i.e., small silt particles and clay particles.

Such particles do not settle.

They exhibit Brownian (random) motion in water.

How can they be removed from water ????

Solution 1:
Suppose these particles can be made to agglomerate by some means (e.g., changing solution chemistry) and
form bigger particles, which will then settle

Problem: these particles do not normally agglomerate. They are stabilized. Why?? Can they be made to
agglomerate??

Solution 2:
Suppose, we add a chemical to water, which can attach to one or more stabilized silt/clay particles, resulting in
the combined entity being destabilized. These destabilized entities can then agglomerate to form settleable
particles.

Solution 3:
Suppose we add stabilized/destabilized particles to water, which interact with stabilized silt/clay particles, such
the combined entity is stabilized. These destabilized entities can then agglomerate to form settleable
particles.
 Coagulation-Flocculation

The process of destabilization of stable particles is called Coagulation

The process of agglomeration of destabilized particles is called Flocculation

Important Questions:

Why are silt/clay particles stable??

How can they be destabilized, i.e., coagulated??

If stabilized, why and how will they flocculate??

How can the coagulation flocculation process be incorporated in water treatment?? Design issues.

The process of settling of agglomerated particles is called Secondary Sedimentation

 Why are silt/clay particles stable??
Silt / clay particles are predominantly made of Si, Al, O and H.

Often, atoms in crystal structure are often substituted during the formation of the mineral.
(Al+3 for Si+4 ; Mg+2 for Al+3 ; Fe+2 for Al+3).
This results in permanent charge.
 Why are silt/clay particles stable??

pH dependent charge
Solution 1:
Suppose these particles can be made to agglomerate by some means (e.g., changing solution chemistry)
and form bigger particles, which will then settle
Increasing ionic strength
Reducing pH

Electrical and Van Der Waals Forces Resultant

Repulsive Repulsive 1
1 2
2
3
4 3
5 4

Distance 5 Distance

Attractive Attractive

1 Stable

5 Destabilized
Solution 2:
Suppose, we add a chemical to water, which can attach to one or more stabilized silt/clay particles,
resulting in the combined entity being destabilized. These destabilized entities can then agglomerate
to form settleable particles.

Cationic Polymers as Coagulants

Charge Neutralization
+ + +
+ +
+
+ Inter-particle Bridging
+

Optimal Polymer dose is important to prevent re-stabilization

Solution 3:
Suppose we add stabilized/destabilized particles to water, which interact with stabilized silt/clay
particles, such the combined entity is stabilized. These destabilized entities can then agglomerate to
form settleable particles.

Aluminium / Ferric Salts as Coagulants

Alum: Al2(SO4)3.18H2O;
Al3+, Al(OH)2+, Al(OH)2+, Al(OH)3 (ppt), Al(OH)4-

FeCl3
Fe3+, Fe(OH)+, Fe(OH)2+, Fe(OH)3 ppt, Fe(OH)4-
 Aluminum Hydroxide
pH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0
1
2 Al(OH)3(s)
3
4
5
6
7
pC

8 Al(OH)4-
9
10 0
Al(OH)3
11
12
13
Al3+
14 +
Al(OH)2
15
AlOH2+
 Ferric Hydroxide
pH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0
1
2
3 Fe(OH)3(s)
4
5
6
pC

7
8
9
10
11 Fe3+ +
Fe(OH)2
12 Fe(OH)4-
13 2+
FeOH
14
Al(OH)3 particles are either uncharged (stabilized) or positively charged (destabilized)

Al(OH)3 particles can interact with silt/clay particles in water, such that the combined
entity is destabilized

Flocculation
Cationic polymers and aluminum / ferric salts are added to water for coagulation. The
Coagulated particles agglomerate by the process of flocculation.

Mechanisms of flocculation:

1. Brownian motion (Perikinetic flocculation)

2. Orthokinetic Flocculation (shear Flocculation)

3. Differential settling
 +
+ ++ - + Solution 3
- + - -- - +
+ + -- -- ++ -
+ - -
+ - + +
++ + -

+
+ ++ - +
- + - -- - +
+ + -- -- ++ -
+ - -
+ - + +
++ + -

Solution 1

- + -
-
- ++ - -
+ ++
- + ++ + + -
- - -
- + -
-

- + -
-
- ++ - -
Solution 2 + + +
- + ++ + + -
- - -
- + -
-
Perikinetic flocculation:
Effective only if one of the interacting particle is < 1 mm in size, irrespective of the
other particle

Differential settling:
Effective only if both interacting particles are > 1 mm in size and vary in size by
more than one order of magnitude.

Orthokinetic Flocculation:
Effective only if both interacting particles are > 1 mm in size and within one order
of magnitude in size.

External velocity gradient (G) must be provided for orthokinetic flocculation. In

practice, G is provided through slow mixing in a flocculation tank.

pH decline due to the formation of Al(OH)3

Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 .18H 2 O 2.Al 3 3.SO 24 18.H 2 O
Al 3 3.H 2 O
Al(OH) 3 3.H

Soda is added to arrest pH decline (if the water has low alkalinity)
Na 2 CO 3 2 Na CO 32
CO 32 H
HCO 3
 Jar Test Apparatus

Take 1 L of the primary settled water in each jar

Add alum / Ferric and/or polymer and soda (if required for pH adjustment)
Rapid mix for 2 minutes at 100 rpm
Slow mix for 30 minutes at 20 rpm
Stop mixing and allow settling for 2 hours.
Measure turbidity of the supernatant

Re-stabilization
Re-stabilization
Turbidity

Turbidity

5 10 NTU Sweep floc 5 10 NTU

Alum Dose (mg/L) Polymer Dose (mg/L)

 Coagulation Flocculation Secondary Sedimentation

Alum/Ferric
Alum / Ferric
Solution Polymer
Polymer Solution
Soda
Soda
Solution

Secondary
Rapid Mix Flocculation
Sedimentation
Tank Tank Effluent
Influent (30-60 NTU) Tank
(5 10 NTU)
Design of a Rapid Mix Tank: Vertical Shaft Impeller

Plan

Elevation
Vertical Shaft Impeller Design Problem:

Design a conventional vertical-shaft rapid mix tank unit for uniformly dispersing coagulant in 11.75 MLD of settled
raw water as per design parameters given below:

Detention time (t): 20 60 s

Ratio of tank height (H) to diameter (D): (1:1 to 1:3)
Ratio of impeller diameter (DI) to tank diameter (D): (0.2:1 to 0.4:1)
Velocity gradient (G): >300 /s
Gt: 10000 20000
Tank diameter (D): <3m
Blade tip speed (vp): : 1.75 2.0 m/s
Velocity of blade relative to water (v): 0.75 x paddle tip speed
Blade area (Ap)/Tank section area (AT): 10:100 20:100
Coefficient of drag on impeller blade (CD): 1.8
Maximum length of each impeller blade (L): 0.25 x impeller diameter
Maximum width of impeller blade (B): 0.20 x impeller diameter
Blade thickness: 5 cm
Impeller height from bottom (HB): 1.0 x impeller diameter
Kinematic viscosity : 1.003 x 10-6 m2/s
Dynamic viscosity of water m: 1.002 x 10-3 N.s/m2

Determine tank dimensions (provide a freeboard of 0.5 m), impeller diameter, blade dimensions, number of blades,
clearance of the impeller from tank bottom, blade rotation speed and power input requirement.
 Solution:

Q = 11.75 MLD = 0.14 m3/s;

Let t = 40 s (between 20 60 s)

V = t.Q = 5.44 m3; Let D = 2 m; Acs = 3.14 m2;

H = V/Acs = 1.73 m; Freeboard = 0.5 m; HT = 2.25 m

2m
H / D = 0.865 (in the range 0.33 1.0, hence okay)

Let, G = 400 s-1 (> 300 s-1, hence okay);

Plan
Elevation Gt = 16000 (in the range 10000 20000, hence okay)

Let the blade tip speed (vp ) = 1.8 m/s

(in the range, 1.75 2.00 m/s, hence okay)
2.25 m
Velocity of the blade relative to water (v)
1.73 m = 0.75.(1.8) = 1.35 m/s
1
Cd .A p .v3 2
G ; Ap = 0.393 m2
2..V
Tank sectional area = D.H = 3.46 m2

Ap / (D.H) = 0.393 / 3.46 = 0.113

(between 0.10 0.20, hence okay)
 Solution (continued):

Let the impeller diameter be 0.8 m, i.e.,

D I 0.8
0.4
D 2 , (between 0.2 0.4, hence okay)
Choose length of each impeller blade (L) as 0.20m, i.e.,
L 0.2
2m 0.25
DI 0.8 , (up to 0.25, hence okay)
0.05 Choose breadth of each impeller blade (B) as 0.15m, i.e.,
B 0.15
Plan 0.187
DI 0.8 , (up to 0.20, hence okay)
Elevation
Area of each blade = (L.B) = (0.2).(0.15) = 0.03 m2
45 rpm

Blade thickness = 5 cm
2.25 m
0.2
Therefore, number of blades to be provided = 13.1 (say 14)
1.73 m
0.15
Clearance of the paddles from the tank bottom = 0.8 m
0.8
Paddle rotation speed (w) = 2.vp/DI = 4.5 radians/s,
(or ~ 45 revolutions/ min)
0.8 m 1
P 2
Power requirement (P): G P = 870 W
Provide 1 kW motor V.m
Design of Flocculation Tank: Horizontal Shaft Paddle

Plan

Elevation
Horizontal Shaft Paddle Design Problem:
Design a conventional horizontal-shaft flocculation tank unit for flocculation of 11.75 MLD of settled raw water
(after coagulant addition in a rapid mix tank) as per design parameters given below:

Detention time (t): 10 30 min

Velocity gradient (G): 20-75 /s
Gt: 2x105 6x105
Paddle tip speed (vp): 0.25 0.75 m/s
Velocity of blade relative to water (v): 0.75 x paddle tip speed
Paddle area per shaft/Tank section area: 10:100 20:100
Coefficient of drag on impeller blade (CD): 1.8
The paddle shafts are provided across the width of the flocculation tank
Paddle diameter: 2-5 m
Length of each paddle (L): 2-5 m
Width of each paddle (B): 22-50 cm
Paddle thickness: 5 cm
Bottom clearance: 50 cm
Submergence: 50 cm
Freeboard: 50 cm
Side clearance of paddles: 25 cm on each side
End clearance of paddles: 25 cm at each end
Kinematic viscosity : 1.003 x 10-6 m2/s
Dynamic viscosity of water m: 1.002 x 10-3 N.s/m2
Tank depth: Paddle diameter + submergence + bottom clearance
Tank width: Paddle length + 2.(End clearance)
Minimum number of paddles shafts provided: 2
Minimum number of paddle in each shaft: 4
Maximum horizontal distance between paddle shafts: 2.(Paddle diameter) + 1m
Minimum horizontal distance between paddle shafts: 2.(Paddle diameter) +0.25 m
Tank length to width ratio: 2:1 to 6:1

Determine tank dimensions paddle diameter, paddle dimensions, number of paddles, paddle rotation speed and
power input requirement.
 4 4
0.25 1
0.25 Solution:
Let the detention time (t) be 25 minutes (within 10-30 minutes, okay)
0.25 Let the velocity gradient (G) be 30 /s (within 20-75 /s, okay)
Therefore G.t = 25.(60).(30) = 45000 (within 20000 60000, okay)
4.31
Volume of the tank (V) = Q.t = 204 m3 (say 205 m3)
0.25
Let the two paddle shafts be placed width-wise
Let the paddle diameter (Dp) be 4 m (within 2-5 m, okay)
Depth of the tank (D) = Paddle diameter + submergence
+ bottom clearance = 5 m
0.25
Surface Area of the tank (A) = 205/5 = 41 m2
Length of the tank (L) = 2.(Side clearance) + 2.(paddle diameter) + 1.0
0.5 0.05
= 2(0.25) + 2.(4) + 1.0 = 9.5 m
Tank width (W) = 41/9.5 = 4.31 m
4
2 Length to width ratio = 2.08 : 1 (within limit 2:1 to 6:1, okay)

Paddle length (Lp) = tank width -2.(End clearance) =

0.5
Let four paddles be provided per shaft.
Area of each paddle = 3.8/4 = 0.95 m2
Breadth of each paddle (Bp) = 0.95/3.81 = 0.25 m (within 22-50 cm)
4.31 2.(0.25) = 3.81 m (within 2-5 m, okay)
Let the paddle tip speed (vp) be 0.40 m/s (within 0.25 0.75 m/s, okay)
Then the velocity of paddle relative to water (v) = 0.30 m/s
1
Cd .A p .v3 2
G ; Total paddle area (Ap) = 7.60 m
2

2..V
Paddle thickness = 5 cm
Paddle area per shaft = 7.6/2 = 3.8 m2
Paddle rotation speed (w) = 2.vp/Dp = 0.20 radians/s, Tank sectional area = (W.D) = 4.31.(5) = 21.55 m2
i.e., 1.91 revolutions per minute Paddle area per shaft 3.8
1
0.176
P 2 Tank Sectional Area (D.L) 21.55
Power requirement is given by, G
V.m (within 0.10 and 0.20, okay)
P = 185 Watts, i.e., provide two 0.1 KW motors for driving each
paddle at 2 rpm.
Using a Hydraulic Jump for Rapid Mixing

Alum / Ferric
Polymer
Soda

Using a Baffled Channel for Flocculation

Effluent

Influent
Secondary Sedimentation Tank

Secondary sedimentation tanks are generally circular

Circular sedimentation tanks are also called clarifiers

Design Parameters:

SOR: 30 40 m3/m2/d
Depth: 3 4.5 m
Dia: 3 60 m
Bottom Slope (cm/m): 6.3 - 17
Detention Time: 2 - 5 hours

Settling Mechanism: Flocculant Settling

 Clari-flocculator:

Motor
Rotating Arm

Motor

Inlet Weir
Effluent
Effluent Water
Launder

Baffle

Flocculator

Scraper

Influent Water
Sludge