UNIT-I

Stones:
Physical properties of minerals,
major rock forming minerals, occurrence and use of minerals.
Introduction to major rock types (Igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks); their genesis, classification and structures;
engineering properties of rocks,
advantages and disadvantages of different rock types at
constructions sites. Common building stones in India and its
uses.
Building stones are defined as those whose origins are
Igneous,
Sedimentary and
metamorphic,
used for construction and decoration, fill material, crushed stone, and coarse-grained
grit material.
In practice, these rocks are differentiated into the so-called hard and soft rocks.
Hard rocks, e.g. granite, rhyolite, and basalt, are difficult to process mechanically.
Soft rocks, e.g. weakly cemented sandstones, tuffs, porous limestones, and
serpentinites, can usually be easily processed.

Rocks are composed of minerals. Rocks are seldom homogenous materials, in

contrast to minerals.
Monomineralic rocks contain only one major mineral. Rocks such as marble or
quartzite are mostly constituted by calcite/ dolomite and quartz, respectively.
Polyphase or polymineralic in composition. Granite, for example, consists of the
minerals feldspar, quartz, and mica.
In any case, a rock is made up of an infinite number of crystals of one or more
minerals.
The fabric of a rock describes its internal structure. The term texture is usually used
in the conventional geological manner for spatial relationships between mineral grains
in a rock. It includes such features as grain shape and size. The structure of a rock
describes the size, the shape, and the interactive relationship (intergrowths) of the
constituent minerals (e.g. grain size, grain shape, grain size distribution, etc.). Fabric
deals with the crystallographic- and shape-preferred orientation, distribution, state
and orientation of microfractures, shape and size of grains, their spatial distribution,
relations between grains, etc., i.e. the structural elements of a rock.
Identification of Minerals
Chemical composition (microprobes and wet chemical methods)
Crystal structure (X-ray diffraction)
Physical properties
 Physical properties of minerals
External crystal form
determined by internal arrangement of the molecules
cubes, octahedrons, hexagonal prisms, etc.
Ionic Bonding example: halite Covalent Bonds: diamond

Many common minerals are silicates

 Polymorphs
Minerals with the same composition, but different crystal structure.
Silicates
Silicate tetrahedra can combine in several ways
to form many common minerals

Carbonates Calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), siderite (FeCO3),

smithsonite (ZnCO3). Make up many common rocks including limestone and
marble
Lustre
describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its surface.
Is it shiny or dull? does it look like a metal or like glass?
Generally it is the first thing to be noticed when identifying an unknown mineral
sample.
Cleavage and Fracture
way in which a mineral breaks is determined by the arrangement of its atoms and the
strength of the chemical bonds holding them together.
Careful observation of broken surfaces may aid in mineral identification.
A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, along parallel flat
surfaces called cleavage planes.
A mineral fractures if it breaks along random, irregular surfaces.

atoms of sodium (red) and chlorine

(yellow) in the mineral halite are parallel
to three planes that intersect at 90.

Types of cleavage
common in
minerals with
examples of
minerals.
Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching or abrasion by other materials.
Hardness is determined by scratching the surface of the sample with another mineral
or material of known hardness. Measured by Mohs Hardness Scale, consists of ten
minerals ranked in ascending order of hardness with diamond, the hardest known
substance, assigned the number 10.
Colour some minerals have characteristic colour determined by their molecular
structure malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite etc., and some minerals are coloured by
impurities. For example, because of impurities quartz may be white, green, red, yellow
etc.
Streak colour of the ground powder of any mineral. It may be of the same colour
as the mineral or may differ malachite is green and gives green streak, fluorite is
purple or green but gives a white streak.

The streak of this dark gray

mineral (hematite), obtained by
rubbing it on the white streak plate
is reddish brown.
Specific gravity the ratio between the weight of a given object and the weight of
an equal volume of water; object weighed in air and then weighed in water and divide
weight in air by the difference of the two weights.

Taste, Odor, Feel

Some minerals have a distinctive taste (halite is salt, and tastes like it). some a
distinctive odor (the powder of some sulfide minerals, such as sphalerite, a zinc
sulfide, smells like rotten eggs), and some a distinctive feel (talc feels slippery).
Rock-Forming Minerals
Minerals are solid substances of natural origin.
As a rule, minerals have definite chemical composition with chemical formula. Due to
the differences in internal structure, one chemical formula can be attributed to more
than one mineral.
Example is CaCO3 - two very distinct internal structures, mineral called calcite and
another mineral named aragonite.
In reality, all mineral specimens have individual appearances with some containing
impurities.
Minerals can be further subdivided according to their internal structure.
Crystalline varieties have characteristically regular internal arrangements of atoms,
ions, or other compounds and form a structure called the unit cell.
In contrast, amorphous mineraloids have no regular internal structure, but they are
also solid. Opal is an amorphous form of silica-dioxide.
Rock-forming minerals are the most widespread minerals and are the major
constituents of rocks.
The systematic subdivision of minerals is based on their chemical composition.
Accordingly, ten major groups are known.
1. Native elements
2. Sulphides
3. Halogenides
4. Oxides and hydroxides
5. Carbonates and nitrates
6. Borates
7. Sulphates
8. Phosphates
9. Silicates
10. Organic compounds
The most common rock-forming minerals are silicates (about 95%), which are
compounds of silicon, oxygen, and other cations. Additional elements, such as
iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, aluminum, etc. can also form a part of
silicate minerals.
The most common light-
colored rock-forming silicate
minerals are
a Plagioclase
(Figure by Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlung of GZG Gttingen),
b K-feldspar (Figure by
Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG
Gttingen),
c Quartz (Figure by
Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlung of GZG Gttingen),
d Amethyst, a colored
gemstone variety of quartz
(Figure by
Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlungen of TU Freiberg),
e Light-colored mica
(muscovite) (Figure by A.
Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlungen of TU Freiberg), and
f Kaolinite (clay mineral) (Figure
by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of
GZG Gttingen)
The most common light-colored rock-forming non-silicate minerals are
a Calcite (scalenohedral) (Figure by A. Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche Sammlungen of TU Freiberg),
b Calcite (rhomobehdral) (Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Gttingen),
c Aragonite (Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Gttingen), and
d Dolomite
The most common dark colored rock-forming silicate minerals are
a Orthopyroxene (Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Gttingen),
b Amphibole (hornblende)
(Figure by Geowissenschaftliche Sammlung of GZG Gttingen),
c Olivine (Figure by A. Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche Sammlungen of TU Freiberg), and
d Dark mica (biotite) (Figure by A. Massanek/Geowissenschaftliche Sammlungen of TU Freiberg)
Ore and industrial minerals.
Commonly found iron
minerals include
a Pyrite and
b Hematite.
The main lead mineral is c
Galena.
Industrial use of d Rock salt
(halite),
e Gypsum,
and
f Barite
(Figure by Geowissenschaftliche
Sammlung of GZG Gttingen)
Rock formation
classification and structures;

Igneous

Geological Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Stratified

Basic classification of rocks Physical Un-stratified

Foliated

Siliceous

Chemical Argillaceous

Calcareous
Geological classification
Depending upon the process of formation rocks can be divided into three main
classes namely
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary
c) Metamorphic rocks

Igneous Rocks form from the solidification of molten rock. Intrusive igneous rocks
are composed of crystals that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye
because these rocks cooled slowly, deep within the Earth thereby allowing time for
the crystals to grow (Plutonic rocks). Example: Granite
Hypabyssal rocks shallow depths, Example: Dolerite.
In contrast, extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks cool very quickly after they erupt from
a volcano, and so are composed of microscopic crystals. Most volcanic rocks make
poor building stone because they may be weak, cracked, inconsistent in color, and/or
contain large pores. Example: Basalt.
Sedimentary Rocks are materials composed of materials weathered from pre-
existing rock. Sedimentary rocks commonly have a layered appearance due to grains
of different composition, color, or size depositing at different times. This layering is
called bedding
Example: Sand stone, lime stone, Gypsum Shale, etc.
Metamorphic Rocks form from when pre-existing rocks are exposed to elevated
heat and pressure. The directed pressure that is commonly associated with
metamorphism reorients elongate or flat minerals to be parallel to each other,
thereby defining layering in the rock that is referred to as a foliation. Under more
extreme metamorphic conditions minerals may segregate into distinct light and dark
colored layers forming a distinctly banded rock called gneiss. Metamorphism may also
deform banding in rocks to form folded patterns
The metamorphic rocks as a foliated structure. Examples: Slate, marble, gneiss. (As a
result of metamorphosis. lime stone and marble become marble, basalt and trap
become schist, laterite and granite become gneiss).
Physical classification

Stratified rocks
These rocks possess planes of cleavage and rocks can be split up along these planes.
Materials from the disintegration of originally formed rocks form stratified rocks.
Example: Sedimentary rocks.

ii) Unstratified rocks

The structure of these rocks may be crystalline .Example: Igneous rocks.

iii) Foliated rocks

Metamorphic rocks have foliated structure. In this case layers of stratification are not
formed due to deposition but due to metamorphic act ion of heat and pressure.
Chemical classification
i) Silicious rocks
The main composition of these rock is Silica. The rocks are hard and durable. It is
unaffected by weathering action.
Example: Granite, Quartzites, Basalt.

ii) Argillaceous rocks

The main composition of these rock is Clay. They are brittle but hard and durable.
Example: Laterite, Clay slate.

iii) Calcareous rocks

The main composition of these rock is Lime.
Example: Lime stone, Dolomite. Marble,
 India Marble Mineral Resources: Indian granite mineral resources:
Federation Name Marble Reserves Marble Reserves
Federation Name
(million tonnes) (million cubic meters)
Rajasthan 1144 Karnataka 9740
Jammu & Kashmir 405 Jharkhand 8847
Madhya Pradesh 400 Rajasthan 8479
Gujarat 95 Madhya Pradesh 6271
Chhattisgarh 83 Andhra Pradesh 2788
Maharashtra 59 Orissa 2135
Haryana 22 Maharashtra 1159
Uttaranchal 6 Bihar 878
Sikkim 2 Tamil Nadu 713
Total 2216 Assam 584
Uttar Pradesh 495
Gujarat 420
Meghalaya 286
Chhatisgarh 50
Haryana 34
West Bengal 33
Kerala 4
Total 42916
 The percentage of stone production
Worldwide exploitation of natural building stones with respect to continents in a more
and the proportion of finished product versus general overview (after Montani 2005)
stone resources (after Montani 2003)

Leading nations in the

amount of stone produced
in millions of tons (after
Montani 2008)

Montani C (2003) Stone 2002world marketing handbook.

Montani C (2005) Stone 2004world marketing handbook.
Montani C (2008) Stone 2008world marketing handbook. Faenza, Gruppo Editoriale Faenza
Editice, Faenza
Uses of Stone
Following are the uses of stone in civil engineering works:
1. The stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, arches, damp-proof courses,
floors. etc.
2. The stone are used facing work to give massive appearance.
3. Crushed stones are widely used in the manufacture of artificial stones.
4. The Stones are used as aggregate for cement concrete, roads, etc.
5. The stones arc used as ballast for railway lines.
6. Stones are used for ornamental works in [he buildings in the form of moldings with
large projections.
7. Flag stone slabs are used for paving.
8. Lime Stone is necessarily used for manufacture or cement.
9. On account of high crushing strength, stones are used in construction of dams,
retaining
walls, weirs, harbours abutment for piers, etc.
10. Slate in the form of tiles is used as an excellent roof covering material.
Characteristics of Good Stones
1. It should be strong hard and durable to withstand the deteriorating action of rough
weather.
2. It should have pleasing uniform colour and fine grained compact texture.
3. It should be remain unaffected by smoke and atmospheric acids.
4. It should be free from cracks cavities, flaws, decay or patches of soft material.
5. The surface of a freshly broken stone should be sharp, clean and bright with
uniformity of colour and texture.
6. The specific gravity of stone should not in any case be less than 2.7.
7. It should be crystalline and homogeneous structure.
8. It should not absorb more than 0.60 % of its weight of water after 24hours of
immersion.
9. It should be seasoned.
10. it should be easily workable.
11. It should stand fire well for some time without serious injury.
12. It should be easily obtainable and economical.
Uses of stones
1. Structure
Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof course etc.
2. Face works
Stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. Facing of Walls of bricks is done in stones of desired shades.
This is known as composite masonry.
3. Paving stones
These are used to cover floor of buildings of all types. They are also adopted to form paving of roads, foot paths etc.
4. Basic material
Stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement concrete, moorum of roads, calcareous cements,
artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.
5. Miscellaneous
Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in the construction of bridges, piers, abutments,
retaining walls, light houses, dams etc.
Granite: The term Granite means grain in Latin word Granum because of its granular nature. It is a
common and widely occurring type of intrusive igneous rock.

Composition : Feldspar, quartz, and small amounts of mica are the primary minerals of the average granite
with minor accessory minerals (usually hornblende).

Properties
It is the hardest building stone.
It provides excellent wearing surface.
It is available in wide ranging colours, usually in grey, green, brown and pink and red. It shows consistency in
colour and texture.
It is a good material for load bearing applications because of its Flexural strength.
Granite usually has a medium- to coarse-grained and homogeneous in texture.
The Specific Gravity of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75. Its compressive strength usually lies between 100
140 MPa. Melting temperature is 1215- 1260 C.
It has negligible porosity. Its Water Absorption is 0.1-0.6%
The principal characteristics of granite also include high load bearing capacity, crushing strength, abrasive
strength, amenability to cutting and shaping without secondary flaws, ability to yield thin and large slabs and -
above all - durability.
Due to highly dense grain, it is almost impervious to stain.
Granite is also resistant to many acids and other caustic chemicals. So it is often used as a liner in commercial
vats.

Uses of Granite
Used as building blocks, but has poor resistance to fire as it crumbles when exposed to intense heat.
Used as road metal, railway ballast, aggregate for concrete; for construction of bridges, piers and marine works;
for luxury flooring, for ornamental and monumental items, etc.

Availability
Good varieties of granite are available in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka,
Kashmir and Gujarat.
India is one of the largest producers of granite blocks, granite tiles and processed granite slabs.
Basalt
1. Igneous rock
2. It is compact, hard and heavy
3. Available in red, yellow grey, blue and greenish black colour
4. Specific gravity is 3 and compressive strength varies from 153 to 189MPa.
5. Used for ornamental, rail road ballast, aggregates for concrete etc.
Sand Stone
1. Sedimentary rock
2. It is available in variety of formations: fine grained, coarse grained compact
or porous
3. Available in white, green, blue, black, red and yellow colours.
4. Specific gravity 2.65 to 2.95
5. Compressive strength is 65MPa
6. Used for ashlar works.

Lime Stone
Limestone is calcareous sedimentary rock formed at the bottom of lakes
and seas with the accumulation of shells, bones and other calcium rich goods. It is composed of
calcite (CaCO3).
It is available in a variety of forms which differ from one another in colour
Compaction, texture, hardness and durability.
Hardness 3 to 4 on Mohs Scale
Density 2.5 to 2.7 Kg/cm3
Compressive Strength 60-170 N/mm2
Water Absorption Less than 1%
Porosity Quite low
Weather Impact Resistant
Uses of Limestone
Flooring and roofing
Wall cladding
Vanity tops
Furniture
Cement Production
Refining Metals
Blackboard chalk.

Availability of Limestone:
India: Khasi, Jayantia and Garo Hills of Meghalaya,Satna limstone belt,
Madhya Pradesh.

Marble
1. Metamorphic rock
2. Available in white, blue, green, yellow black and red colours
3. High compactness,
4. Suitable for decorative works, wall lining columns, pile, table slabs,
hearths, tiled floors, steps of stair case etc.
Slate
1. Metamorphic rock
2. Non absorbent, compact fine grained and produce metallic ringing sound when struck.
3. Available in black, dark blue, grey, reddish brown etc.
4. Used for providing damp proof course, paving dados etc.
Common Uses of Stones
Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
1. Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
2. Stones are used for flooring.
3. Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
4. Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings.
Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.
5. Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
6. Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining
walls.
7. Crushed stones with gravel are used to provide base course for roads.
When mixed with tar they form finishing coat.
8. Crushed stones are used in the following works also:
(a)As coarse aggregate in concrete
(b)For making artificial stones and building blocks
(c)As railway ballast
Availability of Important Stones
Stone : Basalt & Trap
Classification : Igneous
Qualities : Hard &Tough, difficult to work. Sp. gr is 3. comp. strength: 18 to 29KN/mm2
Uses : Foundation work, road metal, rubble masonry,etc
Availability : Maharashtra, Bihar, Gujarat, Bengal &MP

Stone : Granite
Classification : Igneous
Qualities : Hard&durable, can take nice polish, available in different colours. Sp. gr 2.6 to 2.7. comp. strength:
26 to 27KN/mm2
Uses : Steps, wall, brick piers, columns, road metal, facing work, etc. not suitable for carving
Availability : Kashmir, U.P,Madras, Punjab, M.P, Rajasthan, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, kerala, Gujarat.

Stone : Limestone
Classification : Sedimentary
Qualities : Consists of carbonate of lime, easy to work. Sp. gr 2 to 2.75. comp. strength: 54N/mm2
Uses : Manufacture of Lime, floors, steps, walls, road metal,etc.
Availability : A.P, M.P, Gujarat Maharashtra, , Punjab, Bengal, Bihar, UP Himachal Pradesh & Andaman Islands
Stone : Marble
Classification : Metamorphic
Qualities : Available in diff colours, can take good polish. Sp. gr 2.65.
comp. strength: 71N/mm2
Uses : Flooring, Facing, Ornamental work, columns,etc
Availability : Rajasthan, Gujarat, A.P, Maharashtra, Mysore, M.P and U.P

Stone : Sand stone

Classification : Sedimentary
Qualities : Easy to work, available in diff colors, Sp. gr 2.65 to 2.95, comp. strength: 64N/mm2.
Uses : Weight 20to22kN/m3 Columns, facing, flooring, road metal, ornamental work,etc
Availability : A..P, M.P, Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P,
Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, Tamilanadu & Andaman
Islands.

Stone : Quartzite
Classification : Metamorphic
Qualities : Hard, crystalline, brittle, difficult to dress.
Uses : Road metal, concrete aggregate, rubble masonry, retaining walls,
facing,etc.
Availability : A.P, H.P, U.P, Bengal, Mysore, Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Punjab and Rajasthan.
 UNIT-I
Stones: Physical properties of minerals, major rock forming minerals, occurrence and use of minerals. Introduction to
major rock types (Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks); their genesis, classification and structures;
engineering properties of rocks, advantages and disadvantages of different rock types at constructions sites. Common
building stones in India and its uses.

UNIT-II
Coarse and Fine Aggregates: Properties of Coarse and Fine Aggregates, Source of sand , classification of Coarse and
Fine Aggregates ,bulking of sand, propertied of good Coarse and Fine Aggregates.

UNIT-III
Timber, classification of timber, qualities of good timber, common timbers used for building work,Types of plywood
Building blocks, bricks, concrete block. and hollow concrete block types, manufacturing process, properties,
classification..

UNIT-IV
Metals: Types and properties of Steels Manufacturing process of steel Advantages of new alloy steels Properties
and advantages of aluminium.
UNIT-V
Materials: Clay products, ceramics Refractories Fibre Textiles Geosynthetics for Civil Engineering applications,
Polymers in Civil Engineering, Recycling of waste material as building material