Wireless Communications

By
Dr. Mustafa Shakir

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 Course Material
• Text: Wireless Communications: Principles and
Practice by T. Rappaport
• References
– Wireless Communications and Networks by W.
Stallings
– Wireless Communications by Andrea Goldsmith
– Wireless Communications by Roy Blake.
– Wireless & Mobile Networks Architecture by Yi Bing
and Imrich Chlamtac
– Other Books & Internet.
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 What is wireless
communication?
• Any form of communication that does not require the transmitter
and receiver to be in physical contact
• Electromagnetic wave propagated through free-space
• Radar, RF, Microwave, Optical (infrared, Laser).

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 Early History of Wireless
Communication
 . Many people in history used light for communication.
1. 150 BC smoke signals ( Greece)
2. 1794, optical telegraph,
 Disadvantages of these forms of communication
– Limited alphabets
– Noisy
– Broadcast (no privacy or security)
– Limited distance (or require relay which is unreliable)
– Require line-of-sight between transmitter and receiver

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Later on Electromagnetic waves
became important
1. 1831 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic
induction.
2. J. Maxwell (1831- 79): Theory of electromagnetic
fields, wave equations (1864)
3. H. Hertz (1857-94): demonstrated the wave
character of electrical transmission through
space.

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 Evolution of Voice Oriented
Wireless Networks
 The origin of wireless communication dates back to the
era of Marconi ---- 1897, when he demonstrated the
radio’s communication ability to provide continuous
contact with the ships sailing the English channel.
 Mobile telephone service was first offered by AT&T in
1946. This service was mobile, but not cellular. The
base station had a coverage of about 100 km.
 Early systems, based on FM, required 120 KHz of
spectrum for an information bandwidth of 3 kHz. Large
equipment (mounted in cars). Low capacity: 50 users or
more cause overloading, 65% blocking probability.
Multiple Access method used was FDMA.
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 Evolution of Voice Oriented
Wireless Networks
• Next step was the introduction of trunking - relaxing the
constraint of using a channel for each user.
• Cellular concept emerges in early 1970s. Cellular is not a new
technology but rather a new organization.
• Replication of the wide-area network concept. Cellular
concept leads to frequency-reuse concept. By late 60's there
were 70,000 users throughout US.
• Invention of the microprocessor facilitated the implementation
of the complex control algorithms required mainly for switching
between base stations.

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 Today’s Wireless Communication
Systems
Following are some famous wireless
communication systems.
 Cellular Telephone Systems/PCS
 Cordless Telephone Systems
 Paging Systems
 WLAN/PAN/Ad-Hoc Networking
 Blue Tooth

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Personal Communication
Systems

M o b ile
C e llu la r
C o m p u t in g

PC S

C o r d le s s P a g in g

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 CELLULAR CONCEPTS

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 Single Cell ‘Network’

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 History of Cellular Networks
Why cellular networks?
• greater capacity

• efficient use of frequency

• To increase coverage of non cellular system

• replaces a large transmitter with smaller ones

• smaller transmitting power

• each cell is assigned a portion of the total frequency

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Replacement of huge single cell by a

number of small cells

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Types of Mobile Communication
Cells
The size of a cell is dictated by capacity demand

• Macro-cell

• Micro-cell

• Pico-cell

• Mega-cell

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Capacity Computations
• Assume there are N cells, each allocated k
different frequency channels. These N cells
are said to form a cluster. Total number of
channels per cluster is given by
• S=kN
• Total capacity associated with M clusters:
• C=MkN=MS

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 Means of Increasing System Capacity
There are several approaches for increasing cellular
system capacity including:

• Cell clustering

• Sectoring of cells

• Cell splitting

• Frequency reuse

• Reduction of adjacent cell interference and co-channel

interference

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 Cell Clusters
Service areas are normally divided into clusters of
cells to facilitate system design and increased
capacity

Definition:

A group of cells in which each cell is assigned a

different frequency

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 Cell Clusters
A cluster of 7 cells

3 7

4 6

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 Cell Clusters (1)
A network of cell clusters in a densely populated Town

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3 7 2
1 3 7
4 6 1
2 5 4 6
3 7 2 5
1 3 7 2
4 6 1 3 7
5 4 6 1
2 5 4 6
3 7 2 5
1 3 7
4 6 1
5 4 6
5

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 Frequency Plan
• Intelligent allocation of frequencies used
• Each base station is allocated a group of channels

• Adjacent cell base stations are assigned

completely different channel groups

• Adjacent channels are not assigned to same

or even adjacent cells.

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Frequency Reuse Factor
Definition:
When each cell in a cluster of N cells uses one
of N frequencies, the frequency reuse factor
is 1/N

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 Excitation of Cells

• centre-excited, base station is at the centre of the cell

or

• edge-excited, base station at 3 of the 6 cell vertices

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 Finding the Nearest Co-Channel

After selecting smallest possible value of N we should see that

N should follow the following eg. N= i2+j2+ij

(1) Move i cells along any chain of hexagons

(2) Turn 600 counter-clockwise and move j cells, to reach the

next cell using same frequency sets

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Freq Reuse ( N=7 , i=2 j=1)
B
G C
A
F
j D
B E
G C B
i
A G C
F D A
E F D
E
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 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

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 Multiple Access Techniques
• FDMA
• TDMA
• CDMA

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 FDMA-Frequency Division Multiple
Access
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Time

-Requires no synchronization or central timing,

channels independent.
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TDMA-Time Division Multiple
Access: Fixed Slots
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Time

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CDMA-Code Division Multiple
Access: Frequency Hopping
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Time

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 Terminology
• Base Station
– Fixed station used for radio communication with
mobiles. Located at the center or edge of coverage
region. Consists of radio channels, transmit/receive
antennas.
• Control Channels
– Radio channels used for transmission of call setup,
request, initiation and other control purposes
• Full Duplex
– Communication system that allows simultaneous
two-way communication, transmission reception
usually on two different frequencies (FDD)

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 Terminology
• Forward Channel
– Radio channel for transmission from base station to mobile
• Reverse channel
– Radio channel for transmission from mobile to base station
• Handoff
– Process of transferring a mobile from one channel or base
station to another
• Mobile Switching Center
– Switching center that coordinates call routing in a large
service area. MSC connects cellular base stations and the
mobiles to the PSTN (also called Mobile Telephone switching
office (MTSO)

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 Wireless System Basics

Reverse Link
Forward Link

Control or
Setup Channels

Mobile Unit
Base Station
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Major Division Of Cellular Technologies

• 1 G ( AMPS ,NAMPS,TACS,NMT)
• 2G ( IS-54A, IS-136 ,GSM, IS95 CDMA )
• 2.5G ( IS-95B , HSCSD , GPRS ,
EDGE )
• 3G (CDMA2000, WCDMA)
• 4G (MIMO, WiMAX)

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 1G Technologies

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 1G Cellular System

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First Generation
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
• US trials 1978; deployed in Japan (’79) & US (’83)
• 800 MHz band — two 20 MHz bands
• TIA-553
• Still widely used in US and many parts of the world
Nordic Mobile Telephony (NMT)
Sweden, Norway, Demark & Finland
• Launched 1981; now largely retired
• 450 MHz; later at 900 MHz (NMT900)
Total Access Communications System (TACS)
• British design; similar to AMPS; deployed 1985
• Some TACS-900 systems still in use in Europe

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Characteristics Of 1G
• Analog Systems
• Digital Signaling
• Low Capacity
• Limited Roaming
• Less Secure
• Only voice service

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 2G Technologies

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Issues regarding 2G Deployment
• Digital
• Capacity
• Spectrum Utilization
• Infrastructure changes
• Subscriber unit upgrade

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GSM Network Architecture

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Evolution of wireless in Europe and the US can be
summarized in the following diagrams:
U S E u ro p e

F M T e c h n o lo g y M a n y S ta n d a rd s
U n til 1 9 8 8

A M P S
( A n a lo g )
1 9 7 9

G S M
1 9 8 9

D ig it a l T e c h n o lo g y
L a te 1 9 8 0

D C S 1 8 0 0
T D M A C D M A 1 9 9 1

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 Modern cellular standards
• 1979: NTT (Japan), FDMA, FM, 25 kHz channels, 870-940 MHz
• 1983: AMPS (US), FDMA, FM, 30 kHz channels, 824-894 MHz
• 1985: TACS (Europe), FDMA, FM, 25 kHz channels, 900 MHz
• 1990: GSM (Europe), TDMA, GMSK, 200 kHz channels, 890-960 MHz
• 1991: USDC/IS-54 (US), TDMA, /4 DQPSK, 30 kHz channels, 824-894
MHz
• 1993: IS-95 (US), CDMA, BPSK/QPSK, 1.25 MHz channels, 824-894 MH
and 1.8-2.0 GHz
• 1993: CDPD (US), FHSS, GMSK, 30 kHz channels, 824-894 Mhz
• 2001: UMTS/IMT-2000 (3rd generation European cellular standard),
supports data and voice (up to 2 Mbps), 1885-2025 MHz and 2110-2200
Mhz
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 Evolution Of Cellular Mobile
 Engineering Research To full fill the necessity :
 As the requirement of wireless connections and required data rate
increased engineers tried to full fill the requirement.
 Simple Analog Mobile To Analog Cellular Mobile :
 First simple mobile system was upgraded to cellular in the form of
AMPS in 1983.
 Analog Cellular Mobile to Digital Cellular Mobile :
 Then GSM was introduced with TDMA approach having more capacity
and data rate.
 Digital Cellular Mobile To CDMA:
 After that to full fill the requirements of more data and more subscriber
CDMA was introduced by Qualcomm.
 CDMA supports a variable number of users in 1.25MHz wide channels
using direct sequence spread spectrum.
 Interference Affordability:
 CDMA system can operate at much larger interference levels
because of their inherent interference resistance properties.
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 Evolution Of Cellular Mobile
Just an overview Contd.
 Large Capacity of CDMA :
 The ability of CDMA to operate with a much smaller S/N ratio
than FM techniques allows CDMA systems to use the same
set of frequencies in every cell which provides a large
improvement in capacity.

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