Routing in Mobile Ad-hoc

Networks
 By.
P. Victer Paul

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 Contents:
• Ad-hoc Networks
• Problems with Routing
• Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)
• Wireless Routing Protocol(WRP)
• (Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)
• Ad Hoc On demand Distance Vector Routing(AODV)
• Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
• Zone Routing Protocol(ZRP)
• Source Tree Adaptive Routing(STAR)
 Ad-hoc Networks
• Two types of wireless network:
– Infrastructured
• the mobile node can move while communicating
• the base stations are fixed
• as the node goes out of the range of a base station, it gets
into the range of another base station
– Infrastructureless or ad-hoc
• the mobile node can move while communicating
• there are no fixed base stations
• all the nodes in the network need to act as routers
– In Latin “ad-hoc” literally means “for this purpose
only”. Then an ad-hoc network can be regarded as
“spontaneous network”
 Ad-hoc Networks
• Infrastructured network

Infrastructure
(Wired line)

Radio tower
Desktop computer
Radio tower

PDA Laptop computer

Laptop computer
Pen computer
 Ad-hoc Networks
• Infrastructurless (ad-hoc) network or
MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc NETwork)

PDA
PDA

Laptop computer

Laptop computer
Pen computer
 Classification of Ad-hoc
Networks
– Single hop – – Multi hop – some nodes are far
nodes are in their and cannot communicate
reach area and directly. The traffic has to be
can communicate forwarded by other intermediate
nodes.
directly
 Ad-hoc Networks
• Characteristics of an ad-hoc network
– Collection of mobile nodes forming a
temporary network
– Network topology changes frequently and
unpredictably
– No centralized administration or standard
support services
– Each host is an independent router
– Hosts use wireless RF transceivers as
network interface
– Number of nodes 10 to 100 or at most
1000
 Ad-hoc Networks
• Why we need ad-hoc networks?
– Setting up of fixed access points and backbone
infrastructure is not always viable
• Infrastructure may not be present in a disaster area
or war zone
• Infrastructure may not be practical for short-range
radios; Bluetooth (range ~ 10m)
– Do not need backbone infrastructure support
• Are easy to deploy
• Useful when infrastructure is absent, destroyed or
impractical
 Ad-hoc Networks
• Example applications of ad hoc networks:
– emergency search-and-rescue operations,
– meetings or conventions in which persons
wish to quickly share information,
– data acquisition operations in inhospitable
terrain,
– local area networks in the future.
 Ad-hoc Networks
Mobile Ad Hoc Networking is a
multi-layer problem ! - Security
- Service Discovery
- Location-dependent
Application Layer Application
- TCP
- Quality of Service Transport Layer
- Routing
Network Layer - Addressing
- Location Management
Physical/Link Layer
- Power Control
- Multiuser Detection
- Channel Access
 Problems with Routing

• Is it possible to use standard routing

protocols?
– Distance-vector protocols
• Slow convergence due to “Count to Infinity”
Problem
• Creates loops during node failure, network
partition or congestion
– Link state protocols
• Use flooding technique and create excessive
traffic and control overhead
• Require a lot of processor power and therefore
high power consumption
 Problems with Routing
• Limitations of the Wireless Network
– packet loss due to transmission errors
– variable capacity links
– frequent disconnections/partitions
– limited communication bandwidth
– Broadcast nature of the communications
• Limitations Imposed by Mobility
– dynamically changing topologies/routes
– lack of mobility awareness by
system/applications
• Limitations of the Mobile Computer
– short battery lifetime
 Classification of the Routing
Protocols
• Proactive (table driven)
• Require each node to maintain one or more tables to
store routing information
• Each node responds to changes in network topology
by propagating updates throughout the network in
order to maintain a consistent network view
• DSDV, WRP,CSGR,STAR
• Reactive protocols (source initiated)
• Creates routes only when desired by the source
node
• Once a route has been established, it is
maintained by a route maintenance procedure until
either the destination becomes inaccessible along
every path from the source or until the route is no
longer desired
• DSR, AODV (Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector)
• Hybrid Protocol
– ZRP
 Classification of the Routing
Protocols
Proactive Approach Reactive Approach
Route Lower Higher
Latency •A route is kept at all times •A route is never kept
when not used
Routing Higher Lower
Overhead •A frequent dissemination •Fewer control packets
of topology information is in general
required
• Various simulation studies have shown that reactive
protocols perform better in mobile ad hoc networks than
proactive ones.
– However, no single protocol works well in all environments.
– Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the
traffic and mobility patterns.
 Classification of the Routing
Protocols
• Other classification
– Pro active protocols
• DSDV, STAR, WRP, ...
– Reactive protocols
• AODV, DSR, TORA, ...
– Hierarchical/Clustering protocols
• CGSR, ZRP, CBR, FSR, LANMAR, ...
– Position aware protocols
• GPSR, LAR, GRA, ABR, ...
• Leading protocols chosen by MANET
– DSR: Dynamic Source Routing
– AODV: Ad-hoc On-demand Distance
Vector Routing

• Both are “on demand” protocols:

route information discovered only as
needed
 DSDV

• DSDV (Destination Sequenced

Distance Vector)
– Each node sends and responds to
routing control message the same way
– No hierarchical structure
– Avoids the resource costs involved in
maintaining high-level structure
– Scalability may become an issue in
larger networks
 DSDV
• Basic Routing Protocol
– known also as Distributed Bellman-Ford
Every node maintains a routing table
– all available destinations
– the next node to reach to destination
– the number of hops to reach the
destination
• Periodically send table to all
neighbors to maintain topology
• Bi-directional links are required!
 DSDV

Traditional Distance vector tables

1 2
A B C
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric …
A A 0 A A 1 A B 3
B B 1 B B 0 B B 2
C B 3 C C 2 C C 0
 DSDV
Distance Vector Updates
B broadcasts the new routing
information to his neighbors

Routing table
is updated (A, 1) (A, 1)
(B, 0) (B, 0)
(C, 1) (C, 1)

1 1
A B C
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric …
A A 0 A A 1 A B 3 2
B B 1 B B 0 B B 1
C B 3 2 C C 1 C C 0
 DSDV
Distance
Vector – broadcasts to
update
New Node tables of C, B, A
with new entry for D

joins the
network (A, 1)
(B, 0)
(A, 2)
(B, 1)
(C, 1) (C, 0)
(D, 2) (D, 1) (D, 0)

1 1 1
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric …
A A 0 A A 1 A B 2
B B 1 B B 0 B B 1
C B 2 C C 1 C C 0
D B 3 D C 2 D D 1
 DSDV

Distance Vector – Broken link

1 1 1
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Dest. Next Metric …
Next Metric …
… … … c … … …
D B 3 … … … D B
D 
1
D C 2
 DSDV
Distance Vector - Loops

(D, 2) (D, 2)

1 1 1
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Next Metric …
… … … … … … … … …
D B 3 D C 2 D B 3
 DSDV
Distance vector - Count to Infinity

(D,5)

(D,4) (D,4)

(D,3)

(D,2) (D,2)

1 1 1
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric … Dest. Dest. Next Metric …
Next Metric …
… … … c … … …
D B 3, 5, … … … … D B 3, 5, …
D C 2, 4, 6…
 DSDV
• Traditional Distance Vector are not
suited for ad-hoc networks!
– Loops
• Bandwidth reduction in network
• Unnecessary work for loop nodes
– Count to Infinity
• Very slow adaptation to topology
changes.

• Solution -> Introduce destination

sequence numbers
 DSDV
• DSDV keeps the simplicity of
traditional Distance Vector Protocols
• DSDV need to guarantee loop
freeness
– New Table Entry for Destination Sequence
Number
• DSDV need to allow fast reaction to
topology changes
– Make immediate route advertisement on
significant changes in routing table
– but wait with advertising of unstable routes
(damping fluctuations)
 DSDV
• Features introduced in DSDV
– Sequence number originated from
destination. Ensures loop freeness.
– Install Time when entry was made (used to
delete stale entries from table.
– Stable Data Pointer to a table holding
information on how stable a route is. Used to
damp fluctuations in network.
Destinatio Next Metric Seq. Nr Install Stable Data
n Time
A A 0 A-550 001000 Ptr_A
B B 1 B-102 001200 Ptr_B
C B 3 C-588 001200 Ptr_C
D B 4 D-312 001200 Ptr_D
 DSDV – Route
•
Advertisement
Advertise to each neighbor own routing information
– Destination Address
– Metric = Number of Hops to Destination
– Destination Sequence Number
– Other info (e.g. hardware addresses)
• Rules to set sequence number information
– On each advertisement increase own destination
sequence number (use only even numbers)
– If a node is no more reachable (timeout) increase
sequence number of this node by 1 (odd sequence
number) and set metric = .
 DSDV – Route Selection

• Update information is compared to own

routing table
1. Select route with higher destination
sequence number (This ensure to use
always newest information from
destination)
2. Select the route with better metric when
sequence numbers are equal.
 DSDV

DSDV Tables

A B C
Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 1 A-550
B B 1 B-100 B B 0 B-100 B B 2 B-100
C B 2 C-588 C C 2 C-588 C C 0 C-588
 DSDV
DSDV Route Advertisement
B increases Seq.Nr from 100 -> 102
B broadcasts routing information
to Neighbors A, C including
destination sequence numbers
(A, 1, A-550) (A, 1, A-550)
(B, 0, B-102) (B, 0, B-102)
(C, 1, C-588) (C, 1, C-588)

A B C
Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-102 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-588 C C 1 C-588 C C 0 C-588
 DSDV
• DSDV Respond to topology changes
– Immediate advertisements
• Information on new routes, broken Links,
metric change is immediately propagated to
neighbors.

– Full/Incremental Update:
• Full Update: Send all routing information from
own table.
• Incremental Update: Send only entries that
has changed. (Make it fit into one single
packet)
 DSDV
When new node joins the network
2. Insert entry for D with
sequence number D-000.
Then immediately broadcast
1. D broadcast for first time
own table.
Send Sequence number D-000.

(D, 0, D-000)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-102 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-590 C C 0 C-590
D D 1 D-000
 DSDV
3. C increases its sequence
(New node (cont.) number to C-592 then
broadcasts its new table.
4. B gets this new
information and updates its
table…….
(A, 2, A-550) (A, 2, A-550)
(B, 1, B-102) (B, 1, B-102)
……… (C, 0, C-592) (C, 0, C-592)
……… (D, 1, D-000) (D, 1, D-000)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
A A 0 A-550 A A 1 A-550 A B 2 A-550
B B 1 B-102 B B 0 B-102 B B 1 B-102
C B 2 C-590 C C 1 C-592 C C 0 C-592
D C 2 D-000 D D 1 D-000
 DSDV
No loops, no count
to infinity
2. B does its broadcast 1. Node C detects broken Link:
-> no affect on C (C knows that B has -> Increase Seq. Nr. by 1
stale information because C has higher (only case where not the
seq. number for destination D) destination sets the sequence
-> no loop -> no count to infinity number -> odd number)

(D, 2, D-100) (D, 2, D-100)

1
A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
Next Metric Seq.
… … … c … … …
D B 3 D-100 … … … D D  D-101
D C 2 D-100

Immediate Advertisement
3. Immediate
propagation
B to A:
(update information has
higher Seq. Nr. ->
replace table entry)
(D, , D-101)
DSDV
2. Immediate propagation
C to B:
(update information has higher
Seq. Nr. -> replace table entry)
1. Node C detects broken link:
-> Increase Seq. Nr. by 1
(only case where not the
(D, , D-101) destination sets the sequence
number -> odd number)

A B C D
Dest. Next Metric Seq. Dest. Dest. Next Metric Seq.
Next Metric Seq.
… … … ... c … … …
D B 4 D-100
3 … … … ... D B
D 1 D-100
D B  D-101 D C 3 D-100
2 D D  D-101
D C  D-101
 DSDV
• Advantages
– Simple (almost like Distance Vector)
– Loop free through destination seq. numbers
– No latency caused by route discovery

• Disadvantages
– No sleeping nodes
– Bi-directional links required
– Overhead: most routing information never
used
– Scalability is a major problem
 CGSR
• CSGR
(Clusterhead
Gateway Switch
Routing)
– Similar to DSDV
– Based on concept
of clusters and
cluster heads
– Routing is done
via the cluster
heads and
gateways
 CGSR
• Problems with CGSR
– More time is spend in selection of cluster heads
and gateways
– Has a hierarchy.
– Distributed cluster selection algorithm is used to
select cluster head
• Cluster head is bottleneck.
• Least cluster change(LCC) algorithm- cluster
heads only change when two cluster heads
come into contact.
• Each node maintains
• cluster member table-stores destination cluster
head for each node, regularly braodcasted using
DSDV protocol
• Routing Table- next hop
• Updates are required for both tables
 Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)

• A path-finding algorithm
• Utilizes information regarding the length and the
predecessor-to-dest in the shortest path to each
destination
• Eliminates the “Count to Infinity” Problem and converges
faster
• An Update message is sent after processing updates
from neighbors or a change in link to a neighbor is
detected
• Each route update from neighbor k causes route entries
of other neighbors that use k to be re-computed
 The Algorithm

• Each node i maintains a Distance table (iDjk), Routing

table (Destination Identifier, Distance iDj, Predecessor Pj,
the successor Sj and a marker tag), link cost table (Cost,
Update Period) , message retransmission list (Seq. No.,
Counter, Acknowledgement flag, Update List)
• Listen for updates/ACKs which include i in the response
list. Acknowledge each update
• Process the Distance table entries. Compute
Djb = Dkb + kDj . Update predecessor as reported by k
• Update own Distance and predecessor information
• Choose neighbor p such that the path from p to j does
not include i and iDjp <= iDjx and iDyp <= iDyx
• Broadcast new update message. Delete stale entries
from MRL for new updates. Decrement counter for all
entries in list.
• Retransmit MRL entry when counter hits zero, setting
response list of update message to those neighbors
who have not yet acknowledged
• Lack of NULL updates for given HelloInterval indicate
change in link to a neighbor.
• Each node implementing WRP keeps a table of routes and distances and
link costs. It also maintains a 'message retransmission list' (MRL).
• Routing table entries contain distance to a destination node, the previous
and next nodes along the route, and is tagged to identify the route's state:
whether it is a simple path, loop or invalid route. (Storing the previous and
successive nodes assists in detecting loops and avoiding the counting-to-
infinity problem - a shortcoming of Distance Vector Routing.)
• The link cost table maintains the cost of the link to its nearest neighbors
(nodes within direct transmission range), and the number of timeouts since
successfully receiving a message from the neighbor.
• Nodes periodically exchange routing tables with their neighbors via update
messages, or whenever the link state table changes. The MRL maintains a
list of which neighbors are yet to acknowledged an update message, so
they can be retransmitted if necessary. Where no change in the routing
table, a node is required to transmit a 'hello' message to affirm its
connectivity.
• When an update message is received, a node updates its distance table
and reassesses the best route paths. It also carries out a consistency check
with its neighbors, to help eliminate loops and speed up convergence.
• WRP has the same advantage as that of DSDV.
In addition, it has faster convergence and
involves fewer table updates. But the complexity
of maintenance of multiple tables demands a
larger memory and greater processing power
from nodes in the ad hoc wireless network. At
high mobility, the control overhead involved in
updating table entries is almost the same as that
of DSDV and hence is not suitable for highly
dynamic and also for a very large ad hoc
wireless network.
WRP Example
 DSR

• DSR (Dynamic Source Routing)

– Similar to the source routing in traditional
networks
– A node maintains route cache containing
the routes it knows
– Includes route discovery on request and
route maintenance when needed
 DSR
• Route discovery
– The source sends a broadcast packet which
contains source address, destination
address, request id and path.
– If the host receiving this packet, saw this
packet before, discards it.
– Otherwise, it looks up its route caches to look
for a route to destination. If a route is not
found, it appends its address into the packet
and rebroadcasts it.
– If the route is found, it sends a reply packet to
the source node.
– The route will be eventually found when the
request packet reaches the destination
 RREQ (Route
DSR
(source, destination,
request)
path) Route cache
...
Destination
5
RREQ(1,5,{1,2,4})

Route cache
... 4
6

RREQ(1,5,{1,2})

RREQ(1,5,{1}) RREQ(1,5,{1,2})
2
Source
1 Route cache 3
...
Route cache
Route cache
... (3,5) > {3,6,5}
...
 DSR

• How to send a reply packet?

– If the destination has a route to the source
in its cache, use it
– Else if symmetric links are supported, use
the reverse of the route record
– Else, if symmetric links are not supported,
the destination initiate route discovery to
source
RREP (Route reply)
DSR
Source, destination, source Routecache
(5,1) > {5,4,2,1}
route) (5,2) > {5,4,2}
(5,4) > {5,4}
... Destination
5
RREP(5,1,{1,2,
4,5})

Routecache
... 4
6

RREP(5,1,{1,
2,4,5})

RREP(5,1,{
1,2,4,5}) RREP(3,1,{1,
2,3,6,5})
2
Sourc
e 1 Routecache 3
(2,1) > {2,1}
(2,4) > {2,4} Routecache
Routecache ...
(3,1) > {3,2,1}
(1,5) > {1,2,4,5},
(3,2) > {3,2}
{1,2,3,6,5}
(3,5) > {3,6,5}
...
...
 DSR

• Route maintenance
– Whenever a node transmits a data packet, a
route reply or a route error, it must verify that
the next hop correctly receives the packet.
– If not, the node must send a route error to the
node responsible for generating this route
header.
– The source restarts the route discovery
 DSR
• Advantages
– Do not exchange routing update periodically,
so overhead transmission is greatly reduced
– Can refer to cache for the new route when link
fails.
• Disadvantages
– Scalability problem: High route discovery
latency for large network.
– High mobility problem: although the packet
dropped may not be substantial, the overhead
traffic will increase a lot.
 AODV
• Pure on-demand routing protocol
– A node does not perform route discovery or
maintenance until it needs a route to another node or
it offers its services as an intermediate node
– Nodes that are not on active paths do not maintain
routing information and do not participate in routing
table exchanges
• Uses a broadcast route discovery mechanism
• Uses hop-by-hop routing
– Routes are based on dynamic table entries
maintained at intermediate nodes
– Similar to Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), but DSR
uses source routing
 AODV concepts
• Local HELLO messages are used to determine
local connectivity
– Can reduce response time to routing requests
– Can trigger updates when necessary
• Sequence numbers are assigned to routes and
routing table entries
– Used to supersede stale cached routing entries
• Every node maintains two counters
– Node sequence number
– Broadcast ID
 AODV Route Request
• Initiated when a node wants to
communicate with another node, but does
not have a route to that node
• Source node broadcasts a route request
(RREQ) packet to its neighbors
type flags resvd hopcnt
broadcast_id
dest_addr
dest_sequence_#
source_addr
source_sequence_#
 AODV Route Request
• Sequence numbers
– Source sequence indicates “freshness” of reverse route to the
source
– Destination sequence number indicates freshness of route to the
destination
• Every neighbor receives the RREQ and either …
– Returns a route reply (RREP) packet, or
– Forwards the RREQ to its neighbors
• (source_addr, broadcast_id) uniquely identifies the
RREQ
– broadcast_id is incremented for every RREQ packet sent
– Receivers can identify and discard duplicate RREQ packets
 AODV Route Request
• If a node cannot respond to the RREQ
– The node increments the hop count
– The node saves information to implement a reverse
path set up (AODV assumes symmetrical links)
• Neighbor that sent this RREQ packet
• Destination IP address
• Source IP address
• Broadcast ID
• Source node’s sequence number
• Expiration time for reverse path entry (to enable garbage
collection)
 AODV Example (1)
4
1 6

5 7
3
2

Node 1 needs to send a data packet to Node 7

Assume Node 6 knows a current route to Node 7
Assume that no other route information exists in the network
(related to Node 7)
 4
1 6

5 7
3
2

• Node 1 sends a RREQ packet to its neighbors

– source_addr = 1
– dest_addr = 7
– broadcast_id = broadcast_id + 1
– source_sequence_# = source_sequence_# + 1
– dest_sequence_# = last dest_sequence_# for Node 7
 4
1 6

5 7
3
2
• Nodes 2 and 4 verify that this is a new RREQ
and that the source_sequence_# is not stale
with respect to the reverse route to Node 1
• Nodes 2 and 4 forward the RREQ
– Update source_sequence_# for Node 1
– Increment hop_cnt in the RREQ packet
 4
1 6

5 7
3
2

• RREQ reaches Node 6, which knows a route to 7

– Node 6 must verify that the destination sequence number is less
than or equal to the destination sequence number it has
recorded for Node 7
• Nodes 3 and 5 will forward the RREQ packet, but the
receivers recognize the packets as duplicates
 AODV Route Reply
• If a node receives an RREQ packet and it has a
current route to the target destination, then it
unicasts a route reply packet (RREP) to the
neighbor that sent the RREQ packet

type flags rsvd prsz hopcnt

dest_addr
dest_sequence_#
source_addr
lifetime
• Intermediate nodes propagate the first RREP for the
source towards the source using cached reverse route
entries
• Other RREP packets are discarded unless…
– dest_sequence_# number is higher than the previous, or
– destination_sequence_# is the same, but hop_cnt is smaller (i.e.,
there’s a better path)
• RREP eventually makes it to the source, which can use
the neighbor sending the RREP as its next hop for
sending to the destination
• Cached reverse routes will timeout in nodes not seeing a
RREP packet
 4
1 6

5 7
3
2

• Node 6 knows a route to Node 7 and sends an RREP to

Node 4
– source_addr = 1
– dest_addr = 7
– dest_sequence_# = maximum(own sequence number,
dest_sequence_# in RREQ)
– hop_cnt = 1
 4
1 6

5 7
3
2

• Node 4 verifies that this is a new route

reply (the case here) or one that has a
lower hop count and, if so, propagates the
RREP packet to Node 1
– Increments hop_cnt in the RREP packet
 Dest Next Hops 4
1 6
7 4 3

5 7
3
2 Route Maintenance
AODV

• Node 1 now has a route to Node 7 in three hops

and can use it immediately to send data packets
• Note that the first data packet that prompted
path discovery has been delayed until the first
RREP was returned
 AODV Route Maintenance
• Route changes can be detected by…
– Failure of periodic HELLO packets
– Failure or disconnect indication from the link level
– Failure of transmission of a packet to the next hop
(can detect by listening for the retransmission if it is
not the final destination)
• The upstream (toward the source) node
detecting a failure propagates an route error
(RERR) packet with a new destination sequence
number and a hop count of infinity (unreachable)
• The source (or another node on the path) can
rebuild a path by sending a RREQ packet
 4
1 6

5 7
3
2 7

• Assume that Node 7 moves and link 6-7 breaks

• Node 6 issues an RERR packet indicating the
broken path
• The RERR propagates back to Node 1
• Node 1 can discover a new route
 Zone Routing Protocol

• A Hybrid Routing Protocol

• A Zone is defined for each node
• Proactive maintenance of topology within a zone
(IARP) Distance Vector or Link State
• Reactive query/reply mechanism between zones
(IERP)
• Uses ‘Bordercast’ instead of neighbor broadcast
• Neighbor Discovery/Maintenance (NMD) and Border
Resolution Protocol (BRP) used for query control,
route accumulation etc.
ZRP Example
Node S is Source X destination
 Zone Routing Protocol cont.

• Routing Zone and IntrAzone Routing Protocol

– Zone Radius may be based on hop count
– Identity and distance of each Node within the Zone is
proactively maintained
• The Interzone Routing Protocol
– Check if destination is within the routing zone
– Bordercast a route query to all peripheral nodes
– Peripheral nodes execute the same algorithm
 Zone Routing Protocol cont.

• Route Accumulation :
– Provide reverse path from discovery node to
source node
– May employ global caching to reduce query
packet length
• Query Detection/Control :
– Intermediate nodes update a Detected Queries
Table[Query Source, ID]
• Route Maintenance may be reactive or proactive
 STAR
• The approach used in the STAR protocol is
inbetween these two approaches.
• The idea is to maintain a source tree at each
node which connects the node to all the
destinations through loop-free tree branches.
• The aim is not to emphasize the determination of
shortest paths, rather find paths which are
reasonable with respect to some metric.
• This is called the Least Overhead Routing
Approach (LORA).
• DSDV uses the Optimum Routing Approach
(ORA) which requires frequent exchange of
routing table updates.
• In the LORA approach, route optimality is
sacrificed in favour of lower number of overhead
messages.
• In the STAR protocol, the LORA approach is
used and the exchange of source trees among
the nodes is infrequent. Also, a source tree is
much lighter compared to a routing table.
• In STAR, the topology of a network is modelled
as a directed graph G=(V,E), where V is the set
of nodes and E is the set of edges connecting
the nodes.
• A link level protocol is assumed that keeps track
of neighbourhood information through exchange
of hello messages.
• Each router maintains a source tree that is a tree
connecting the router to all destinations that are
known to the router.
• A router knows its adjacent links, i.e., the next-
hop neighbours in its source tree.
• A router also knows the source trees reported by
its neighbours.
• The collection of a router´s own source tree and
the source trees reported by its neighbours
forms a partial topology graph for the router
 Maintaining source trees
• A router computes its source tree by running
Dijkstra´s shortest path algorithm on its partial
topology graph.
• A router updates its source tree whenever there
are significant changes in the partial topology
graph when a neighbour moves away (link
failure), or a neighbour communicates a new
source tree.
• The updates are done according to the order the
communications are received.
 What Needs to be Communicated
• Link deletions need not be communicated as the
deletion of a link to reach a given destination is
implicit with the addition of a new link to reach
the same destination.
• The only case a router needs to explicitly inform
its neighbours about link deletion is when a
deletion causes the router to lose paths to one
or more destinations.
• The basic update unit used to communicate
changes to source trees is the link state update
(LSU).
 Sequence Numbers
• When a router receives an LSU, it can determine
whether the LSU contains more recent link-state
information by comparing the sequence number
of the new LSU with the sequence number of
the link stored locally.
• Each router erases a link from its partial
topology graph if the link is not adjacent to the
router and is not present in the source trees
reported by any of its neighbours.
 Exchanging Update Messages
• We only discuss how STAR protocol can be
implemented for supporting the Least
Overhead Routing Approach (LORA). It is
possible to implement STAR to support
Optimal Routing Approach (ORA).
• The LORA approach is more important
since it reduces overheads considerably.
• The ORA approach can be supported
simply by exchanging source trees
whenever a router detects a change in its
 When to Exchange Update
Messages
• A router running STAR protocol to support
LORA reports updates to its source tree in
the event of :
– Unreachable destinations
– New destinations
– The possiblity of permanent routing loops
– Cost of paths exceeding a given threshold
 New Destination
• Router i sends a source-tree update to its
neighbours when it finds a new destination
or any of its neighbours reports a new
destination.
• A router can learn about a new neighbour
through link level support and this triggers
a source-tree update.
• This update message is also necessary
when a node joins the network for the first
time.
• STAR performs ORA table driven based
routing to construct source trees
• LORA table driven routing can be used to
selectively perform updates.