Introduction to

Convection Heat
Transfer
“Heat transfer between a fluid and a bounding surface is known
as convection heat transfer”

Convection heat transfer is comprised of two mechanisms:

i. Random molecular motion (diffusion/ conduction)

ii. Bulk or macroscopic motion the fluid (advection)

The convection heat transfer is complicated by fact that it involves

fluid motion as well as heat conduction.

Fasterthe fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.

Without motion heat transfer between solid and fluid by pure
conduction.
Therefore, fluid motion enhances the heat transfer rate.
Forced convection Natural convection

Boiling Condensation
Where
q”= the convective heat flux (W/m2)
TS= solid surface temperature
T= Fluid temperature
h= convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2/K)

convection heat transfer coefficient influenced by:

 Surface geometry
 Nature of the fluid motion
 Assortment of fluid properties (thermodynamics, transport)
Convection Heat Transfer and Fluid Properties

Convection heat transfer strongly influenced by the fluid properties:

Dynamic viscosity ( )
Thermal conductivity (k)
Density ()
Specific heat (Cp)
Fluid velocity (V)
Type of fluid flow (laminar / turbulent)
Geometry and roughness of the solid surface
Fluid-surface
interaction develops a region in the fluid known as
Hydrodynamic or velocity boundary layer.

In which velocity varies from zero to finite value of U.

If the surface and flow temperatures differ, there will be a region
of fluid through which temperature varies from TS to T in the
outer flow.

This region is called thermal boundary layer.

The concept of boundary layers is essential to the understanding
of convection heat and mass transfer between a surface and a
fluid flowing through it.

There are different types boundary layers:

1. Velocity Boundary layer

2. Thermal Boundary layer

3. Concentration boundary layer

These boundary layers describe their relationships to the

 friction coefficient
 convection heat transfer coefficient, and
 convection mass transfer coefficient
Leading edge Trailing edge
To introduce the concept of a boundary layer, consider flow over
the flat plate

When fluid particles make contact with the surface, their velocity is
reduced significantly relative to the fluid velocity.

For most situations it is assume that the particle velocity is zero at

the wall, which known as No-Slip.

These particles then act to retard the motion of particles in the

adjoining fluid layer until a distance of y= .

In the boundary layer faster layer of fluid will try to drag along the
slower one, because of friction/ interlocking between two layers.

Drag force per unit area is called shear stress.

The presence of the plate is felt up to some normal distance ()

from the plate beyond which the free-stream velocity u
remains essentially unchanged.

Asa result, the x-component of the fluid velocity (u) will vary
from 0 at y= 0 to nearly u  at y=

The region of the flow above the plate bounded by  in which

the effects of the viscous shearing forces/ shear stresses are felt
is called the velocity boundary layer.

The boundary layer thickness, is typically defined as the distance

y from the surface at which u=0.99u.
If Re<5x105,
velocity boundary layer is laminar and velocity distribution is
parabolic.

If Re>5x105,
velocity boundary layer is turbulent and velocity distribution
follows the log-law or power law.

If Re is critical,
The boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent, which
depends on
 Turbulence in ambient flow
 Surface roughness
 Pressure gradient
 Temperature difference
For turbulent flow, where large velocity fluctuation occurs, the
equation of Newton's law of shear stress is inappropriate.

Therefore, alternative empirical models for shear stress must be

used.

Reynoldsstress model
K-ε model
K- model
Hot plate and cold fluid
Cold plate and hot fluid
Likewisevelocity boundary layer, a thermal boundary layer
develops when a fluid at a specified temperature flows over a
surface that is at a different temperature.

The fluid particles in the layer adjacent to the surface will reach
thermal equilibrium with the plate and assume the surface
temperature Ts.

These fluid particles will then exchange energy with the particles
in the adjoining-fluid layer, and so on.

As a result, a temperature profile will develop in the flow field

that ranges from Ts at the surface to T sufficiently far from the
surface
The flow region over the surface in which the temperature
variation in the direction normal to the surface is significant is
the thermal boundary layer.

The thickness of the thermal boundary layer t at any location

along the surface is defined as the distance from the surface
at which the temperature difference T-Ts equals 0.99(T - Ts).

T= 0.99T at the outer edge of the thermal boundary layer,

which is analogous to u=0.99u for the velocity boundary layer.

The shape of the temperature profile in the thermal boundary

layer dictates the convection heat transfer between a solid
surface and the fluid flowing over it.
In flow over a heated /cooled surface, both velocity and thermal
boundary layers will develop simultaneously.

Noting that the fluid velocity will have a strong influence on the
temperature profile.

 The development of the velocity boundary layer relative to the

thermal boundary layer will have a strong effect on the
convection heat transfer.
Concentration boundary layer
Concentration boundary layer
The concentration boundary layer is the region of the fluid in
which concentration gradients exist.

Distance from the leading edge, the effects of species transfer

penetrate farther into the free stream and the concentration
boundary layer grows.
 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
In study of convection heat transfer ,we are interested to determine
the rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and adjacent fluid.

The rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher by

convection than it by conduction.

Forced convection heat transfer is very complex phenomenon

which involves,

Fluid motion
Heat conduction
Many variables
 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
Despite of the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat
transfer is observed to be proportional to the temperature difference
as expressed by Newton’s law of cooling:

Q conv  hA(TS  T )
Therefore convection heat transfer co-efficient (h) can be defined as

“The rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and fluid per unit
surface per unit temperature difference”.

This heat transfer coefficient is depends on the several variables.

 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties:
Dynamic viscosity()
Thermal conductivity (k)
Density ()
Specific heat (Cp)
Fluid velocity (U)
Geometry and roughness of solid surface.
Thus, we expect the convection heat transfer is more complex in
presence of so many variables.
 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
In order to reduce several variables and to decrease the complexity
of the engineering problems, various dimensionless
numbers/empirical correlations are used.

Following are the dimensionless numbers

i. Nusselt Number (Nu)

ii. Reynolds Number (Re)
iii. Prandtl Number (Pr)
iv. Stanton Number (St)
 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
i. Nusselt Number(Nu)
It is ratio of heat transfer by convection to conduction
q convection hT hL
Nu   
q conduction kT / L k
hL For flat plate
Nu 
k
hD For circular tube
Nu 
k
It is also common practice to non-dimensionalized the heat
transfer coefficient h with the Nusselt number.
 Larger the Nusselt Number more effective the convection
 When Nu=1, heat transfer in fluid layer by pure conduction.
Nusselt Number(Nu) for different geometries

For Flat Plate

For Laminar Flow
Nu  0.664ReL  2 .Pr 
1 1
3

For Turbulent Flow

Nu  0.037 ReL  .Pr 
4 1
5 3

For Cylinder
Re  .Pr 
1 1 4
hD 2 3   Re  5  5
  0.3  1   28200  8 
1  0.4 / Pr  
Nu cyl
 
1
k 2
3
4  

For sphere

 
1
0.4     4
hD 1 2
Nu sph   2 0.4 Re  0.06 Re Pr 
2 3 
k  s 
 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
ii. Prandtl Number (Pr)
It is ratio of molecular diffusivity of momentum to molecular
diffusivity of heat.

 
Pr  
 k
Cp
C p
Pr 
k

Flow over a heated/cooled surface, both velocity and thermal

boundary layers will develop simultaneously.
Both boundary layers will have a strong effect on the convection
heat transfer.
 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
 Therefore, the relative thickness of both boundary layers is best
described by the Prandtl number

 The dynamic viscosity of fluid convey the information about the

rate at which the momentum may diffuse through fluid because
of molecular motion.

 The thermal diffusivity tells us the diffusion of heat in the fluid.

 Therefore, this number connecting the velocity and temperature

field for convection heat transfer calculations.
 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
Pr=1 (for fluids:gases)
Shows that both momentum and heat dissipated through fluid at the
 same rate.
Both the boundary layers are coincide to each other

Pr<1 (for liquid metals)

Shows that heat diffuse very quickly than momentum (liquid metals).
Thermal boundary layer much thicker than the velocity boundary
layer.
Thermal boundary layer is more dominant than the velocity boundary
layer.
Pr>1 (for oils)
Shows that heat diffuse very slowly (oil) and thermal boundary layer
is much thinner than the velocity boundary layer.
The velocity boundary layer out grows the thermal boundary layer.
Typical Ranges of Prandtl numbers for Common Fluids

Fluid Prandtl Number (Pr)

Liquid metals (mercury) 0.004 - 0.03

Gases 0.07 - 1.0

Water 1.7 – 13.7

Light organic fluid 5 - 50

Oils 50 - 100000

Glycerine 2000 - 100000

 Empirical Correlations for Convection
Heat Transfer
iii. Stanton Number(St)
It is ratio of Nusselt number to the product of Prandtl number and
Reynolds number.
Nu
St 
Pr . Re
hconvection
St 
UC p
Consider laminar flow of a fluid over a flat plate, as shown in Fig.

Surfaces that are slightly contoured such as turbine blades can also be
approximated as flat plates with reasonable accuracy.

The x-coordinate is measured along the plate surface from the leading edge of
the plate in the direction of the flow, and y is measured from the surface in the
normal direction.

The fluid approaches the plate in the x-direction with a uniform upstream velocity,
which is equivalent to the free stream velocity u.

When viscous dissipation is negligible, the continuity, momentum, and energy

equations reduce for steady, incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with constant
properties .
For local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at location (x)
0.664
Cf x 
Re 1x/ 2

hx x
Nu x 
k

(Pr  0.6)
Nu x  0.332 Re 1x/ 2 . Pr 1 / 3
For average friction coefficient and Nusselt number over entire plate
1.328
Cf  1 / 2
Re L

hL
Nu 
k

Nu  0.664 Re 1L/ 2 . Pr 1 / 3

Nu L  C Re mL . Pr n
Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent,
and thus it is important to understand how turbulence affects on
wall shear stress and heat transfer.

Turbulent flow is characterized by random and rapid fluctuations

of groups of fluid particles, called eddies, throughout the boundary
layer.

These fluctuations provide an additional mechanism for

momentum and heat transfer.

In laminar flow, fluid particles flow in an orderly manner along

stream lines, and both momentum and heat are transferred across
streamlines by molecular diffusion.
In turbulent flow, the transverse motion of eddies transport
momentum and heat to other regions of flow before they mix with
the rest of the fluid and lose their identity, greatly enhancing
momentum and heat transfer.

As a result, turbulent flow is associated with much higher values of

friction and heat transfer coefficients .

Even when the mean flow is steady, the eddying motion in turbulent
flow causes significant fluctuations in the values of velocity,
temperature, pressure and even density (in compressible flow).

We observe that the instantaneous values of the velocity fluctuate

about a mean value, which suggests that the velocity can be
expressed as the sum of a mean value and a fluctuating component.
The Continuity, momentum and energy equations for the steady two-
dimensional flow of a fluid with constant properties and negligible
shear stresses .
 For local friction coefficient and Nusselt number
0.0592
Cf x 
Re 1x/ 5
hx
Nu x 
k
Nu x  0.0296 Re 4x / 5 . Pr 1 / 3

For average friction coefficient and Nusselt number

0.074
Cf 
Re 1L/ 5
hL
Nu 
k
Nu  0.037 Re 4L / 5 . Pr 1 / 3

The friction coefficient is an important parameter in heat transfer

Studies, since it is directly related to the heat transfer coefficient and
the power requirements of the pump or fan.
Drag force on the surface
V 2
F f  C f As (N )
2
Problem:
Engine oil at 60°C flows over the upper surface of a 5-m-long flat
plate whose temperature is 20°C with a velocity of 2 m/s as shown
in Fig. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer
per unit width of the entire plate.

The properties of engine oil at the film temperature of (Tf)

Tf = (Ts+T)/2

Tf =(20+60)/2 = 40°C

From property table.

= 876 kg/m3 , Pr= 2870

k= 0.144 W/m °C, =242x10-6 m2/s

Noting that L = 5 m, the Reynolds number at the end of the plate is

VL
Re L 


25
Re L 
242  10 6

Re L  4.13  10 4

ReL is less than the critical Reynolds number.

Thus, we have laminar flow over the entire plate, and the average
friction coefficient is determine from
The average friction coefficient
1.328
C f  1/ 2
Re L

C f  1.328 Re L0.5

C f  1.328  (4.13  10 4 ) 0.5

C f  0.00653
The drag force acting on the plate per unit width become

V 2
FD  C f A
2

876  (2) 2
FD  0.00653(5  1)
2

FD  57.2
This force corresponds to the weight of a mass of about 6kg .
Similarly, the Nusselt number is determined using the laminar flow
relation for a plate.

hL
Nu   0.664 Re 1L/ 2 . Pr 1 / 3
k

Nu  0.664  (4.13  10 4 ) 0.5  (2870)1 / 3

Nu  1918
Then the convective heat transfer coefficient is
k 0.114
h  Nu  1918
L 5

h  55.2W / m 2 .0 C
Heat transfer rate

Q conv  hA(T  TS )

Q conv  55.2  (5  1)(60  20)

Q conv  11040W
Problem:
The local atmospheric pressure in Denver, Colorado (elevation 1610
m), is 83.4 kPa. Air at this pressure and 20°C flows with a velocity of
8 m/s over a hot 1.5 m x 6 m flat plate whose temperature is 130°C as
shown in fig.
Determine the rate of heat transfer from the plate if the air flows
parallel to the (a) 6-m-long side and (b) the 1.5-m side.

The properties of air at the film temperature of (Tf)

Tf = (Ts- T)/2

Tf =(130+20)/2 = 77°C

Tf =350K
From property table at pressure of 1 atm

Pr=0.706 k= 0.0297 W/m °C, =2.50x10-6 m2/s

(a) When air flow is parallel to long side, L=6 m

VL
Re L 


8 6
Re L 
250  10 5

Re L  1.92  10 6
ReL is greater than the critical Reynolds number and flow is turbulent.
Thus, we have combined laminar and turbulent flow and the average
Nusselt number for the entire plate is determine from.

hL
Nu   (0.037 Re 0L.8  871) Pr 1 / 3
k

Nu  [0.037  (1.96  10 6 ) 0.8  871]  0.7061 / 3

Nu  2727
Then the convective heat transfer coefficient is
k 0.0297
h  Nu  2727
L 6

h  13.5W / m 2 .0 C
 Heat transfer rate

Q conv  hA(TS  T )

Q conv  13.5  (1.5  6)(134  20)

Q conv  13850W
(b) When air flow is along the short side, we have L=1.5 m, and the
Reynolds number at the end of the plate becomes

VL
Re L 


8  1.5
Re L 
250  10 5

Re L  4.80  10 5
This Reynolds number is less than the critical Reynolds number.
Thus we have laminar flow over the entire plate, and the average
Nusselt number is determine from
 hL
Nu   0.664 Re 1L/ 2 . Pr 1 / 3
k

Nu  0.664  (4.8  10 5 ) 0.5  (0.706)1 / 3

Nu  410

Then
k 0.0297
h  Nu  410
L 1.5

h  8.12W / m 2 .0 C
 Q conv  hA(TS  T )

Q conv  8.12  9(134  20)

Q conv  8330W
This is considerably less than the heat transfer rate determined in
case (a).
Discussion: Note that the direction of fluid flow can have a
significant effect on convection heat transfer to or from a surface .
In this case, we can increase the heat transfer rate by 65 percent by
simply blowing the air along the long side of the rectangular plate
instead of the short side.
 In external/ flat plate flow, the free-stream velocity served as a
convenient reference velocity for use in the evaluation of the
Reynolds number and the friction coefficient.

 In internal / pipe flow, there is no free stream and thus we need an

alternative.

The fluid velocity in a tube changes from zero at the surface because
of the no-slip condition, to a maximum at the tube center.

Therefore, for calculation it is convenient to work with an average or

mean velocity which remains constant for incompressible flow when
the cross sectional area of the tube is constant.
The mean velocity in actual heating and cooling applications may
change somewhat because of the changes in density with temperature.

But, in practice, we evaluate the fluid properties at some average

temperature and treat them as constants.

The convenience in working with constant properties usually more

than justifies the slight loss in accuracy.

When a fluid is heated or cooled as it flows through a tube, the

temperature of the fluid at any cross section changes from Ts at the
surface of the wall to some maximum (or minimum in the case of
heating) at the tube center.

In fluid flow it is convenient to work with an average or mean

temperature Tm that remains uniform at a cross section.
Unlike the mean velocity, the mean temperature Tm will change in the
flow direction whenever the fluid is heated or cooled.

The value of the mean temperature Tm is determined from the

requirement that the conservation of energy principle be satisfied.

Note that the mean temperature Tm of a fluid changes during heating

or cooling.

Also, the fluid properties in internal flow are usually evaluated at the
bulk mean fluid temperature, which is the arithmetic average of the
mean temperatures at the inlet and the exit.
That is,

Tb= (Tm,i + Tm,e ) / 2

Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference
Ti  Te
AMTD 
2
(TS  Ti )  (TS  Te )
AMTD 
2

Ti  Te
AMTE  Ts 
2

AMTD  Ts  Tb

 Tb  Ti  Te / 2
Consider laminar flow in a circular tube of radius r where fluid enters
the tube with a uniform velocity.

We know that when the fluid makes contact with the surface,
viscous effects become important, and a boundary layer develops with
increasing x.

This development occurs at the expense of a shrinking inviscid flow

region and concludes with boundary layer merger at the center line.

Following this merger, viscous effects extend over the entire cross
section and the velocity profile no longer changes with increasing x.

The flow is then said to be fully developed, and the distance from the
entrance at which this condition is achieved is termed the
Hydrodynamic entry length. the fully developed velocity profile is
parabolic for laminar flow in a circular tube.
In laminar flow

Lh = 0.05 Re D

L th = 0.05 Re Pr D

In Turbulent flow

L h = L th = 10D
Friction factor (f)

f = 64 / Re

Average Nusselt number:

Nu = 1.86 (Re Pr D/L)1/3 (µb/µs)0.14

Where
µb = Dynamic viscosity at bulk mean temperature

µs = Dynamic viscosity at surface temperature

If , Ts = constant

Nu = 3.66

If qs = constant

Nu = 4.36

Hydraulic Diameter (Dh)

Dh = 4Ac / p

h = KNu / Dh
Ac = x-section area of the tube
P = parimeter (P = 3.14D)
Friction factor:

f = 0.184 Re -0.2

Nusselt number:

Nu = 0.125f Re Pr1/3

Nu = 0.023Re0.8 Prn

For heating, n = 0.4

For cooling, n = 0.3
For turbulent flow, the profile is flatted due to turbulent mixing in
the radial direction.

The layer along the inner surface of tube up to the entrance length /
fully developed region is known as boundary layer

Thickness of boundary layer is depend on the radius of the tube.

Boundary layers along the tube walls meet at the centre of the tube
and entire flow acquires the characteristics of the boundary layer.

Once boundary layer thickness equal to the radius of tube, there will
not be any further change in the velocity distribution.

This is known as fully developed velocity profile.

The friction and heat transfer coefficients remain constant in

developed region.
For thermal boundary layer, the region of flow over which the
thermal boundary layer developed and reaches the tube centre is
called the Thermal entry region.

And its length is known as thermal entry length

The temperature profile in thermally developed region may vary with

X-axis in flow direction.

Therefore, temperature profile can be different at different x-section

of the tube in developed region.

For laminar flow in a tube, the magnitude of Prandtl number is

measure of the relative growth of the velocity and thermal boundary
layer.
Problem:
Heating of Water by Resistance Heaters in a Tube
Water is to be heated from 15°C to 65°C as it flows through a 3-cminternal diameter
5-m-long tube as shown in Fig. The tube is equipped with an electric resistance heater
that provides uniform heating throughout the surface of the tube. The outer surface of
the heater is well insulated, so that in steady operation all the heat generated in the
heater is transferred to the water in the tube. If the system is to provide hot water at a
rate of 10 L/min, determine the power rating of the resistance heater. Also, estimate
the inner surface temperature of the pipe at the exit.
Properties:
The properties of water at the bulk mean temperature : Tb = (Ti + Te)/2 = (15 +65)/2
= 40°C
Tb = 40°C (From table A-9).
=992.1 kg/m3
Cp =4179 J/kg °C
k=0.631 W/m °C , Pr 4.32
= / = 0.658x10-6 m2/s
For Cross-sectional area of the tube


 0.03
3.14
Ac  D  2 2

4 4
Ac  7.069  10 4 m 2
For total surface area of the tube

As  PL  DL  3.14  0.03  5

As  0.471m 2

Mass flow rate

m  V
V  10 L / min
V  0.01m 3 / min
m   992.1  0.01
m  0.1654 kg / sec
Heat supplied to water to increase the temperature from 15 to 65oC
 C p Te  Ti 
Q  m
Q  0.1654  4.17965  15 
Q  34.6 KJ / sec
Q  34.6 Kw

Power required for electric resistance heater is 34.6 Kw, because

Heater is totally insulated.

Surface temperature of the tube

q s  h(Ts  Tm )
q s
Ts  Tm 
h
Q 34.6
q s  
A 0.471
q s  73.46 Kw / m 2 Surface Heat Flux
For heat transfer coefficient (h)
hD
Nu 
k
k
h Nu
D

Where Nusselt number (Nu)

Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 . Pr 0.4
For Reynolds number
U mean D
Re 

V 0.01
U mean  
Ac 7.069  10 4
U mean  0.236 m / sec
 0.2360  0.03
Re 
0.658  10 6
Re  10760
This Reynolds number is greater than the 10000, therefore,
The flow is turbulent in this case and the entry lengths for hydrodynamic and thermal
are,

Lh  Lth  10 D  10  0.03
Lh  Lth  0.3m
Now, substitute values in equation

Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 . Pr 0.4

0.631
h  69.5
0.03
h  1462W / m 2 o C
For surface temperature
qs
TS  Tm 
h
73.460
TS  65 
1462
TS  115 o C
Discussion:
Note that the inner surface temperature of the pipe will be 50°C higher than the
mean water temperature at the pipe exit.
This temperature difference of 50°C between the water and the surface will remain
constant throughout the fully developed flow region.