University of Hail

College of Engineering
 EE 202 Slides
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
By
Dr Muhammad Tajammal Chughtai
‫ﺋﻰ ﺷﻐﺗﺎ ﺘﺠﻣﻞ ﻣﺤﻣﺪ‬
 Summary
Scientific and Engineering Notation

Very large and very small numbers are

represented with scientific and engineering
notation.

47,000,000 = 4.7 x 107 (Scientific Notation)

= 47 x 106 (Engineering
Notation)
 Summary
Scientific and Engineering Notation

0.000 027 = 2.7 x 10-5 (Scientific Notation)

= 27 x 10-6 (Engineering Notation)

0.605 = 6.05 x 10-1 (Scientific Notation)

= 605 x 10-3 (Engineering Notation)
 Summary

Metric Conversions

Numbers in scientific notation

can be entered in a scientific
calculator using the EE key.
Most scientific calculators can be 
placed in a mode that will 
automatically convert any decimal 
number entered into scientific 
notation or engineering notation. 
 Summary
SI Fundamental Units
Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Amount of Mole mol
substance
 Summary
Some Important Electrical Units
Except for current, all electrical and magnetic
units are derived from the fundamental units.
Current is a fundamental unit.
Quantity Unit Symbol
Current Ampere A
Charge Coulomb C
These derived units are
Voltage Volt V based on fundamental
units from the meter-
Resistance Ohm  kilogram-second
system, hence are called
Power Watt W mks units.
 Summary

Engineering Metric Prefixes

P peta 1015

Can you T tera 1012

name the
prefixes and G giga 109
their
meaning? M mega 106

k kilo 103
 Summary

Engineering Metric Prefixes

m milli 10­3

Can you  micro 10­6

name the
prefixes and n nano 10­9
their
meaning? p pico 10­12

f femto 10­15
 Summary

Metric Conversions
When converting from a larger unit to a smaller 
unit, move the decimal point to the right. 
Remember, a smaller unit means the number must be 
larger. Smaller unit

0.47 M = 470 k

Larger number
 Summary

Metric Conversions
When converting from a smaller unit to a larger 
unit, move the decimal point to the left. 
Remember, a larger unit means the number must be 
smaller. Larger unit

10,000 pF = 0.01 F

Smaller number
 Summary

Metric Arithmetic
When adding or subtracting numbers with a metric 
prefix, convert them to the same prefix first.

10,000  + 22 k =
10,000  + 22,000  = 32,000 
Alternatively,
10 k + 22 k = 32 k
 Summary

Metric Arithmetic
When adding or subtracting numbers with a metric 
prefix, convert them to the same prefix first.

200  + 1.0 mA =
200 A + 1,000 A = 12,000 A
Alternatively,
0.200 m + 1.0 mA = 1.2 mA
 Summary
Voltage

The defining equation for voltage is

W
V=
Q

One volt is the potential difference (voltage) between two

points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb
of charge from one point to the other.
 Summary
Current
Current (I) is the amount of charge (Q) that flows past a
point in a unit of time (t). The defining equation is:
Q
I=
t
One ampere is a number of electrons having a total charge of 1 C
moving through a given cross section in 1 s.

What is the current if 2 C passes a point in 5 s? 0.4 A

 Summary
Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to current.
One ohm (1 ) is the resistance if one ampere (1 A) is in a
material when one volt (1 V) is applied.
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
1
G=
R
Components designed to have a specific amount of resistance are
called resistors. Color bands
Resistance material
(carbon composition)
Insulation coating

Leads
 Summary
Resistance Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance
color-code
Black 0 10 0

Brown 1 10 1 1% (five band)

Resistance value, first three bands: Red 2 10 2 2% (five band)

Orange 3 10 3
First band – 1 digit
st
Yellow 4 10 4

Second band – 2nd digit Green 5 10 5

Blue 6 10 6

Violet 7 10 7
*Third band – Multiplier (number of Gray 8 10 8

White 9 10 9
zeros following second digit)
Gold ±5% 10 -1 5% (four band)

Fourth band - tolerance Silver ± 10% 10 -2 10% (four band)

No band ± 20%

* For resistance values less than 10 , the third band is either gold or silver.
Gold is for a multiplier of 0.1 and silver is for a multiplier of 0.01.
 Summary

What is the resistance and tolerance of each

of the four-band resistors?

5.1 k± 5%
k± 5%
47  ± 10%
1.0  ± 5%
 Summary
Alphanumeric Labeling

• Two or three digits, and one of the letters R, K, or M are used to

identify a resistance value.

• The letter is used to indicate the multiplier, and its position is

used to indicate decimal point position.
 Summary
Variable resistors

Variable resistors include the potentiometer and rheostat. The

center terminal of a variable resistor is connected to the
wiper. R
3
1 2
Shaft

Wiper Variable resistor

Resistive (potentiometer)
element

To connect a potentiometer as a rheostat, one of Variable resistor

the outside terminals is connected to the wiper. (rheostat)
 Summary
The electric circuit

Circuits are described pictorially with schematics. For

example, the flashlight can be represented by

Switch

Battery Lamp
(2 cells)
 Summary
The DMM

The DMM (Digital

Multimeter) is an important
multipurpose instrument OFF VH
Hz

which can measure voltage, VH

current, and resistance. V

mV H

Many include other A

measurement options. 10 A V

40 mA COM
 Summary
Analog meters

An analog multimeter is
also called a VOM (volt-
ohm-milliammeter).
Analog meters measure
voltage, current, and
resistance. The user must
choose the range and read
the proper scale.

Photo courtesy of Triplett Corporation

 Summary

Review of V, I, and R
Voltage is  the amount of energy per charge available to
move electrons from one point to another in a circuit and is
measured in volts.
Current is  the rate of charge flow and is measured in 
amperes.  

Resistance is   the opposition to current and is measured 
in ohms. 
 Summary
Ohm’s law
The most important fundamental law in electronics is Ohm’s
law, which relates voltage, current, and resistance. 
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) formulated the equation that
bears his name:

V
I=
R

What is the current in a circuit with a 12 V source if the

resistance is 10 ? 1.2 A
 Summary
Ohm’s law 

If you need to solve for voltage, Ohm’s law is:

V = IR

What is the voltage across a 680  resistor if the current is

26.5 mA? 18 V
 Summary
Ohm’s law 
V
If you need to solve for resistance, Ohm’s law is: R=
I
What is the (hot) resistance
of the bulb? 132  O FF V
Hz

115 V V

m V

A Ra n g e
A u to ra n g e 1 s

To u c h / H o ld 1 s
10 A
V

40 m A C OM

Fuse d
 Summary

Energy and Power

In electrical work, the rate energy is dissipated

can be determined from any of three forms of
the power formula.

V2
P = I 2R P = VI P=
R

Together, the three forms are called Watt’s law.

 Summary
Energy and Power

What power is dissipated in a 27  resistor if the current is

0.135 A?

Knowing the values for resistance and current, substitute the

values into P =I 2R.
P = I 2R
= (0.135 A) 2 ( 27  )
= 0.49 W
1.2 Voltage

Voltage is the energy per unit charge created by the separation,

which can be expressed as

v (t ) = dw (t ) Volt (joule/coulumb)
dq (t )
where
v (t ) = the voltage in volts
w (t ) = the energy in joules
q (t ) = the charge in coulombs
 1.3 The Current
The rate of flow of charges is called the current which is expressed
as dq (t )
i (t ) = Ampere (coulumb/second)
dt (t )
where
i (t ) = the current in amperes
q (t ) = the charge in coulombs
Example t = the time in seconds
Power

Power is defined as the time rate of expanding or absorbing

energy
p (t ) = dw (t ) W 1 W=1 J
dt 1s
where
p (t ) - power in Wattts
w (t ) - Energy in Joules
t - Time in Seconds

p (t ) = dw (t ) dw (t ) dq (t )
� �� �
= � �� �= v (t )i (t )
dt �dq (t ) �� dt �
� �� �

This shows that the power is simply the product of the current in the element and the
voltage across the element
Passive Sign Convention

p (t ) = v (t )i (t )
Figure 1.10
Charging a
discharged
automobile
battery to
illustrate the
concept of
power delivered
to or absorbed
by an element
and the passive
sign convention.
Figure 1.11 Illustration of the power delivered to (absorbed by) an element and the
power delivered by the element.
Figure 1.12 Examples of the computation of power delivered to or by an element.
Electric Circuit is an interconnection of circuit elements

Each element is labeled with

A Voltage (polarity)

A current (direction)

Figure 1.13
Illustration of an electric circuit as a particular interconnection of circuit elements.
 Kirchhoff's Current Law ( KCL):

The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit equals zero.

Current entering the node is positive and leaving the node is negative

i1 + (- i2 ) + i3 = 0 � i1 - i2 + i3 = 0

Current entering the node is negative and leaving the node is positive

(-i1 ) + i2 + (-i3 ) = 0 � i1 - i2 + i3 = 0

Note the algebraic sign is regardless if the sign on the value of the current
Figure 1.14 Illustration of Kirchhoff ’s current law (KCL).

i1 + (- i2 ) + i3 + (- i4 ) + i5 = 0

� i11 +44i23 4+ 43i5 = i142 2+ 43i4

currents Entering a node currents Leaving a node
KCL also applies to larger and closed regions of circuit called supernodes

i2 = i6 + i9 + i10
Example 1.3: Determine the currents ix, iy and iz

KCL at node d
ix
ix+3=2
ix = 2-3 = -1A

KCL at node a
ix+ iy +4 = 0
KCL at node b
iy = -3A
4 + iz + 2 = 0
iz = -6A
We could have applied KCL at the supernode to get

iy + 4A + 2A = 3A
Thus iy = -3
Figure 1.17
Example 1.4.
 Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.

First we have to define a closed path

A closed path or a loop is defined as starting at an arbitrary node, we trace closed path in
a circuit through selected basic circuit elements including open circuit and return to the
original node without passing through any intermediate node more than once

abea bceb cdec aefa abcdefa

 Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.

The "algebraic" correspond to the reference direction to each voltage in the loop.

Assigning a positive sign to a voltage rise ( - to + )

Assigning a negative sign to a voltage drop ( + to - )
OR
Assigning a positive sign to a voltage drop ( - to + )
Assigning a negative sign to a voltage rise ( + to - )
 Example

:We apply KVL as follows

Loop 1 v1 +v2 - 5 = 0

Loop 2 v3 +v4 -v2 = 0

Figure 1.23 Another example of the application of KVL.
Ex 1.8: Determine vx, vy, vz by KVL

v z = 2 + 5 - (-4) = 7

v y = -3 + 6 + 5 = 8

v x = -6 + 2 - v z = -4 - 11 = -15
 Ex 1.9: Determine voltage v and current i

KVL around loop containing elements E,H,B,A,G gives v = - 3 + 2 + 1 - 4 = -4

KCL at the supernode gives 1+4+ix=3, thus ix = -2A
KCL at node e gives i+3= -2, thus i= -5A
 1.7 Conservation of Power

The sum of powers delivered to all elements of a circuit

at any time equals to zero

�
allelements
pi = �
allelements
vi i i = 0
Ex 1.10 Verify conservation of power for the circuit

Element power
A 1A x 1V=1W
B -4A x 2V= -8W
C -3A x 3V= -9W
D -5A x 1V= -5W
E -3A x (-4V)=12W
F 5A x (-1V)= -5W
G 2A x 4V=8W
H -(-2A) x 3V=6W

ic = -3A, vc = 3V if = 5A, vf = -1V

id = -5A, vd = 1V ih = ix = -2A
ve = v = -4V
 1.8 Series and Parallel Connection of Elements

Figure 1.32
v A = vKVL
B =v C
KCL
i A = i B = iC v =
= v
i =A i =B i C
v A v B ==v v
C
A B C

series connection of elements, parallel connection of elements

Figure 1.33
Example to illustrate to proper classification of series and
parallel connections
Determine which elements are connected in series
and which elements are connected in parallel

Figure E1.19
Exercise Problem 1.19.
Determine which elements are connected in series
and which elements are connected in parallel

Figure E1.20
Exercise Problem 1.20.
HW 1 is due now
 CHAPTER 2

Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis

Techniques
2.1 The Independent Voltage and
Current Sources

Figure 2.1 The independent voltage source.

A given function of time

 Types of Voltage Waveforms

DC voltage source AC voltage source

 Combining Voltage Sources

In Series In Parallel
 Exercise Problem 2.1
Replace the combination of voltage sources
with an equivalent source at the two
terminals

KVL � -V +10 - 3t - 6 = 0 � V = 4 - 3t V
ab ab
Independent Current Source

Independent Current Source

Is a function of time
 Combining Current Sources

In Parallel In Series
Exercise Problem 2.2
Replace the combination of current sources with a single source
that is equivalent at the two terminals

3+2 sin 3t -10= (-7+2sin 3t) A

 Exercise Problem 2.3
Determine v s ( t and
) is ( t )
Such that the two circuits are equivalent at terminals a
and b

Vs(t) = (3 + 2t - 2cos 3t) v is(t) = (2 - 6t - 5sin 2t)A

2.2 The Linear Resistor and Ohm’s
Law

1
G=
R

Ohm’s Law: v (t ) = Ri (t )
Current is assumed to enter the positive voltage
terminal (The passive sign Convention)
Convention
Ohm’s Law
 Conductance

1
G= Siemen (S )
R
Ohm ' s Law : i (t ) = G v (t )
The Power Absorbed by a Resistor

p ( t ) = v(t )i (t )
= i (t ) R
2

= G v (t )
2

2
v (t )
=
R
 Example 2.3

Write Ohm’s law for the following four resistors

V = -3 i V = -5 i V=2i V = -10 i
 Example 2.4

Determine the unknown voltage or current

v = iR = 12

v 10
i = - = - = -2 v = -iR = -6 v = iR = 18 v = iR = 12
R 5
2.3 Single-Loop and Single-Node-Pair
Circuits
• Single-loop circuit have one current common to all
elements
 Analysis of single loop circuits

• Assume an arbitrary direction for current I

• The resulting current is

� ( voltage sources )
I=
�( resistors in the loop )
• The Voltage across any resistor R is the product of i
and R with signs according to Ohm’s law
 Example 2.5
Determine voltages v1, v2, and v3 in the following circuit

v1 = 1�0.267 = 0.267v
3-5+8- 2
I= = 0.267A v 2 = -5 �0.267 = -1.333v
1+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
v3 = 5 + 2 �0.267 = 5.533v
Example 2.7
Determine voltages v1 and v2 in the following circuit

3 - 5 - 6 - 10 v1 = 3 �( -1.5 ) = -4.5v
I= = -1.5A
2+3+ 4+ 3 v 2 = -10 - 2 ( -1.5 ) = -10 + 3 = -7
Single-node-pair circuit

To analyze a single-node-pair circuit

1. Assume a direction for V across all elements

V=
�( current sources )
2. The resulting voltage is
�( conduc tan ce s in the loop )
3. The current through an individual resistor R is V/R
 Example 2.8:
Determine currents i1 and i2 in the following circuit

First label the voltage V as shown, then write

-2 + 5 - 4 -1 -0.632
V= = = -0.632V i1 = = -0.158A
1 1 19 4
S + S + 1S S
4 3 12 -0.632
i2 = - = 0.211A
3
2.4 Resistors in Series

Equivalent of resistors in series

Ex 2.11 Determine the equivalent R at ab
Resistors in Parallel

1 1 1 1
= + +L +
R eq R1 R 2 Rn
Ex. Determine equivalent R at ab

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + = 1.283S
R eq 3 4 2 5
R=0.779
 Two resistors in parallel

R
R || R =
2
R eq = R1 || R 2
R 1R 2
R eq =
R1 + R 2
Repeated use of two-resistors
 2.4.1 Circuit Solution by Circuit Reduction

Determine voltages V and vx and currents I and ix

vx
I = = 54 A
2

Single node pair

V 5A
v x = i x �1 = V
5
2 ix = = 2A V = 1
5 = 5V
2 2+ 2
1
2.5 Voltage Division

vS ( t )
i=
R1 + R 2 + R 3
R1
v1 = R1i = vS ( t )
R1 + R 2 + R 3
R2
v 2 = R 2i = vS ( t )
R1 + R 2 + R 3
R3
v3 = R 3i = vS ( t )
R1 + R 2 + R 3
Ri
vi = vS ( t )
R1 + R 2 + L + R n
Ex 2.19 Determine V

Ri
vi = vS ( t )
R1 + R 2 + L + R n

2
v =- 5 = -2V
2+3
EX: 2.21 Determine V

9
va = (9 || 9)*10A = *10 = 45V
2
2 2
V= va = * 45 = 10V
2 + 3 + 4 9
Current Division
iS ( t )
v=
G1 + G 2 + G 3
G1
i1 = G1v = iS ( t )
G1 + G 2 + G 3
G2
i2 = G 2 v = iS ( t )
G1 + G 2 + G 3
G3
i3 = G 3 v = iS ( t )
G1 + G 2 + G 3
Case of two resistors in parallel
 Ex: 2.22 Determine I and ix by current division
2i x

ix

Two-resistor current division rule

1 1
I=- 2A = -
1 + 3 2

v x = -3 * I = 3 / 2V
vx
From original circuit ix = = 3 / 4A
2
 Ex: 2.22 Determine I and ix by current division
2i x

ix

Two-resistor current division rule

1 1
I=- 2A = -
1 + 3 2

v x = -3 * I = 3 / 2V
vx
From original circuit ix = = 3 / 4A
2
 Ex: 2.23 Determine vx

Single loop circuit

10V 30
I= = A
4 7
1 + 
3
2 10
Current division in the original circuit i x = I= A
2 + 4 7
10
v x = -1 *i x = - v
7
2.6 Solutions for Circuits Containing More than one Source
Previously we solve circuit containing one source . We apply circuit reduction
By combining resistors in parallel or series

We also can have more than one source however in a single loop or single node
however when we have more than one source and more than one loop or node

In this type of circuit we can not do circuit reduction by combining resistors

due to the source

Example we can not combine the 2  resistor and the 1  or the other 2 
 Direct Method:
• KCL to all nonsimple nodes,
• KVL to all nonsimple loops,
• Ohm’s law to every resistor.

Simple node

Simple loop Non simple node Non simple loo

Ex. 2.26 Determine i using the direct method
KCL at a

Ohm’s law
By KVL
10V = -2i + 3(5 - i)

=> i = 1A
Ex. 2.27 Determine V using the direct method

KVL around the two nonsimple loops

Ohm’s law to determine currents
KCL at node a
v-3 v v-3
4A = + +
2 2 1
17
�v= V
4
 Ex: 2.28 Determine v and I using the direct method

KCL at a

Ohm’s law

KVL around the outside loop 3V=2(I-2)+2I+2I => I=7/6A

KVL around the right loop v = 2I +2I = 14/3 V
 Source Transformations 2.7

A method called Source Transformations will allow the transformations

of a voltage source in series with a resistor to a current source in parallel
.with resistor

The double arrow indicate that the transformation is bilateral , that we can
start with either configuration and drive the other
 iL iL

Voltage source with a series resistor Current source with a parallel resistor

vs R
iL = iL = is
R + RL R + RL

Equating we
, have
vs R vs
= is � is = OR v s = Ri s
R + RL R + RL R
Polarity of Vs in one form must be such that it tends to
push in the direction of Is in the other form

-
 Ex. 2.29: Determine i and ix using source
transformation

Single loop

KVL 15V - 10V

i= = 1A
2 + 3

ix should be found from the original circuit

i x = - (i - 5)
= 5 - i = 4A
 Ex 2.30: Determine I and V

Transform the 3V in series with the 2 Ohm

resistor
We get a single-node-pair circuit
�3 � �3 �4 14
V = � A + 2A �
* 2 || 4 = � A + 2A �
* = V
�2 � �2 �3 3
V 7
Using Ohm’s law in the original circuit: I= = A
4 6
Example (a) find the power associated with the 6 V source
State whether the 6 V source is absorbing or) b (
delivering power

We are going to use source transformation to reduce the circuit,

however note that we will not alter or transfer the 6 V source because
.it is the objective
 40
= 8A
5
6 4 7 48
(20 || 5) = 4Ω

(8A )(4Ω) = 32 V
(6 + 4) = 10Ω

(10 + 10) = 20Ω

32
= 1.6A
20
64748
(30 || 20) = 12Ω

(4 + 12) = 16Ω

(1.6A )(12Ω) = 19.2 V

 i i=
19.-6
= 0.825 A
(4+1)

� P6V = (0.825)(6) = 4.95 W

It should be clear if we transfer the 6V during these steps you will not
be able to find the power associated with it
 Chapter 3

Additional Circuit Analysis

Techniques
 3.1 The Principle of Superposition

If a circuit composed of linear elements contains

N independent sources, any element voltage
or current in that circuit is composed of the sum of
N contributions, each of which is due to one of the
sources acting individually when all others
are set equal to zero (Deactivated)
 Deactivated sources

• Figure 3.1 Illustration of (a) replacing a deactivated

voltage source with a short circuit, and (b) replacing
a deactivated current source with an open circuit.
Example: determine v and i

R1 vS
v' = vS i' =
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2

R1 R1 R 1R 2
v =
'
vS R 1R 2 v = vS + iS
R1 + R 2 v =
"
iS R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
R1 + R 2

vS vS R1
i =
' R1 i = - iS
i =-
"
iS R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
As a check Direct Method
KCL at upper node gives

v = R1 �(i + i S )
v S = R1 (i + i S ) + R 2i KVL around nonsimple loop
vS R1 Solving for I gives
i = - iS
R 1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
R1 R 1R 2
v = R1 �(i + i S ) = vS + iS
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
Ex 3.1: Determine V and I using Superposition

3 + 4 21
I =-
'
�3A = - A
1 +  + 3 + 4 10
1 + 2 36
V = 4 �
'
�3A = V
1 +  + 3 + 4 10
 2 + 4 12
I ''' = �2A = A
1 +  + 3 + 4 10
10V
I =-
"
= -1A 1 + 3 32
1 +  + 3 + 4 V = -4 �
'''
�2A = - V
1 +  + 3 + 4 10
V " = 4 �I " = -4V
21 12 19
4 I = I + I + I = - A - 1A + A = - A
' '' '''

V "=- �10V = -4V 10 10 10

1 +  + 3 + 4 36 32 36
V =V ' +V '' +V ''' = V - 4V - V = - V
10 10 10
 Alternatively, using direct method
(I - 2) �2 + (I + 1) �4 +1V + ( I + 3) �3 + I �1 = 0
19
I =- A
10
36
V = (I + 1) �4 = - V
10

I - +
 3.2 The Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Figure 3.5
(a) separating a circuit into two parts,
(b) writing the u–i relation at the
terminals of the linear part, and
(c) representing the linear part with the
Thevenin equivalent circuit.

v = Ai + B
v = RTH i +V OC
V OC = v i =0

v
RTH =
i all independent sources deactivated
 +

Figure 3.6 Illustration of the computation of (a) the open-circuit

voltage VOC and
(b) the Thevenin resistance RTH.
Ex. 3.3 Determine current i by reducing the circuit
attached to the 5 resistor to a Thevenin equivalent

V OC = (2 || 2) �(2A - 10A) = -8V

3.3 The Norton Equivalent Circuit

V OC
I SC = - i v =0
=
RTH
Ex 3.5 Determine i considered in Ex 3.3 using a Norton
equivalent circuit

Using Superposition
 2 4V 1 2 ||  5
I '
= � = A I ''
SC =- �10A = - A
SC
2 + 3 2 + 2 || 3 2 2 ||  + 3 2

1 5
I SC = I SC
'
+ I SC
''
= A - A = -2A
2 2

OR

V OC -8V
I SC = = = -2
RTH 4
The requested i
4 8
i = �(-2A) = - A
4 + 5 9
3.4 Maximum Power Transfer

All practical sources have internal resistance represented by RS.

When the source is attached to a load RL. some voltage will drop
across RS.
What would be the optimum RL such that a maximum power will be
delivered from the source to the load?
 vS
The load current isi L =
RS + R L

RL
The delivered power to the load is PL = i R L
2 = vS2
( RS + R L )
L 2

To maximize power, differentiate with respect to load and set result to zero
dPL ( R S + R L ) - 2R L ( R S + R L ) 2
2

= vS =0 Solve for R S � R S = R L
( RS + R L )
4
dR L

Thus for maximum power transfer to a load, we should choose the load resistanc
to be equal to the internal resistance of the source. The delivered power is

vS2
PL max =
4 ( RS = R L )
Example 3.8

Determine the value of load resistance RL to achieve maximum power transfer to

that load for the following circuit

Thevenin Equivalent

R L = R TH = 4
The circuit attached to the load can be reduced to a Thevenin
equivalent circuit. From the circuit we determine
vS2 49
The maximum power is PL max = 4 ( R = R ) W=
S L 16
 3.5 The Node-Voltage Method

Vc Vb
Vd

Vc
-

There are a total of four nodes

We arbitrarily choose one node a
as the reference node to which the
Node voltages are reference
Then we define the voltages of the
Other three nodes c, b, d with respect
to this reference node
 Vc -Vb i + i
KCL at node c = S1 S2
R1
 Vc -Vb i + i
KCL at node c = S1 S2
R1
Vb Vc -Vb Vb -Vd Vb -Vd
KCL at node b - + + =0
R2 R1 R3 R4
 Vc -Vb i + i
KCL at node c = S1 S2
R1
Vb Vc -Vb Vb -Vd Vb -Vd
KCL at node b - + + =0
R2 R1 R3 R4

Vb -Vd Vb -Vd = iS1 + iS 3

+
KCL at node d R3 R4
 Vb Vc -Vb Vb -Vd Vb -Vd
Nb : - + + =0
R2 R1 R3 R4

Nc : Vc -Vb i + i
= S1 S2
R1

Nd : Vb -Vd Vb -Vd = iS1 + iS 3

+
R3 R4
Matrix Form
�1 1 1 1 1 �1 �
1 �
� + + + - -� + �
�
�R1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R1 �R 3 R 4 �
�
� ��Vb � � 0 �
1 1
� - 0 ��V �= �i + i �
�� � �
c S1 S2 �
� R1 R1
� ��
�Vd ��� �-iS1 - iS3 �
�
� - �1 + 1 � 1 1 � { 14 2 43
0 + V
� �R R �
� �3 4 � R3 R 4 � �
I
1 4 4 4 4 4 44 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 43
G
GV = I
 Ex. 3.9 Write the node-voltage equations and solve for I

Vc Select a reference node

Label the other nodes
Write KCL on each non reference node

Vb
Va

V a V b -V a �3
-1 0
� V a = 1V
Na : - = 3A �2 �
 1 � V a � �3 �
�� 3
3 1 Vb = - V
V b -V a V c -V b
�-1 - �� V �= �
- 2 �
2
� 2 �� � � �
b
Nb : - = -2A 2
��
Vc � -3�
1  � 1 3 � �� � � 5
�0 - � Vc = - V
V c V c -V b � 2 2 � 2
Nc : + = -3A
1  V b -V a 5
I =- = A
�1 1 � 1 1 2
Na : � + V
�a - V b = 3A
�1  2  � 1
1 �1 1 � 1 You can also solve the circuit and find
Nb : - Va +� + V
�b - V c = -2A
1 �1 2  � 2 
the current I using superposition
1 �1 1 �
Nc : - Vb +� + V c = -3A
�
2 �1 2 �
 Circuit Containing Voltage Source
General rule:
Choose a reference node and define node voltages as usual

Write the constraints that are imposed on the node voltages

by voltage sources

Draw supernodes around all voltage sources that have neither

end connected to the reference node

Write KCL for all supernodes and all remaining nodes except
those that have a voltage source connected between that node
and the reference node.

Substitute the constraints imposed by the voltage sources into

these equations, and place them in standard form.
 Ex: 3.12 Determine Current I by writing node-voltage equations

Vb
Va Vc

Select a reference node and label the other non reference nodes
From constraints V c -V a = 1V V b = -3V

Drawing supernode around node a and c

KCL for the supernode gives:
Substitution from constraints
V a V a -V b V c 3 V a +1
+ + = 2A V a + + =2
2 2 3 2 3
1 The current I is:
V V � Va = V
� Va - b + c = 2 V -V 8 +3
1
25
2 3 8 I = a b
= = A
2 2 16
3.6 The Mesh-Current Method
A mesh is a circuit loop that does not enclose any elements
The mesh currents are fictitious currents that are defined to
flow only around the mesh

Figure 3.21
Illustrations of the concept of a mesh.
 A three-mesh circuit and
the mesh currents

The general rules for writing

mesh-current equations
1. Define the mesh currents
2. Write the total current through each element in terms of the mesh
currents flowing through them
3. Write KVL around each mesh
4. Put these equations in standard form, and solve them for the mesh
currents
For example
Grouping and placing in a standard form
M1 : (R1 + R 3 + R 4 )I 1 - R 3I 2 - R 4 I 3 = v S 1 -v S 3
M2: -R 3 I 1 + (R 2 + R 3 + R 5 )I 2 - R 2 I 3 = v S 2 + v S 3
M3: -R 4 I 1 - R 2 I 2 + (R 2 + R 4 + R 6 )I 3 = -v S 2

In matrix form
RI = V
� R1 + R 3 + R 4 -R 3 -R 4 �
R=�
� - R 3 R 2 + R 3 + R 5 - R 2
�
�
� -R 4
� -R 2 R2 + R4 + R6 �
�
�I1 � �v S 1 -v S 3 �
KVL around each mesh give: I=�
I � V = �v + v �
M1 : R 1 (I 1 ) + R 3 (I 1 - I 2 ) + R 4 (I 1 - I 3 ) = v S 1 -v S 3 �2 � �S 2 S 3 �
�
I3�
� � � -v S 2 �
� �
M2: R 5 (I 2 ) - R 3 (I 1 - I 2 ) - R 2 ( I 3 - I 2 ) = v S 2 + v S 3
M3: R 6 (I 3 ) + R 2 (I 3 - I 2 ) - R 4 (I 1 - I 3 ) = -v S 2 Once these equations are solved,
the current through each element
Can be written in terms of the
Mesh currents
Ex 3.14: Write the mesh-current equations and determine current I
Direction of mesh current does not affect solution

M1 : 2(I 1 + I 2 ) + 1(I 1 - I 3 ) = 3
M2: 2(I 1 + I 2 ) + 3(I 2 + I 3 ) + 1(I 2 ) = 0
M3: 3(I 2 + I 3 ) - 1(I 1 - I 3 ) = 2

KVL around each mesh

Solving for mesh curren
M1 : 2(I 1 + I 2 ) + 1(I 1 - I 3 ) = 3 69
In matrix form I1 = A
M2: 2(I 1 + I 2 ) + 3(I 2 + I 3 ) + 1(I 2 ) = 0 11
M3: 3(I 2 + I 3 ) - 1(I 1 - I 3 ) = 2 �3 2 -1�� I 1 � ��
3 I 2 = -5A
�2 6 3 ��I �= ��
0
� �� � ��
2 64
3I 1 + 2I 2 - I 3 = 3 �-1 3 4 � I3 = A
M1 : � ��
I3�
� � ��
2
�� 11
M2: 2I 1 + 6I 2 + 3I 3 = 0 1 4 44 2 4 4 43 { {
R I V Therefore:
M3: -I 1 + 3I 2 + 4I 3 = 2 69
I = -I 1 = - A
11
RI = V
 We will solve the circuit using the Node Voltage method (comparison)

Va Vb Vc = 2 V

Vc = 2 V c -V c = 3 V Va = 2

Only one node is unknown V b

1 1 1 27
KCL at node b V b + (V b -V c ) - (V a -V b ) = 0 Vb = V
3 1 2 11

V a V a -V b 69
I =- - = - A
1 1 11
 3.6.1 Circuit Containing Current Sources
I 3 = -i S 1
I 1 - I 2 = -i S 2 Hence only one mesh current is unkn
Voltage across current source is unknown, so we ap
KVL around mesh 2 and mesh 3
M2 +M3: R 1I 1 + R 2 ( I 1 - I 3 ) + R 3 ( I 2 - I 3 ) + R 4 I 2 = 0
I 3 = -i S 1
Substitute constraints:
(R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 )I 1 = -(R 2 + R 3 )i S 1 - (R 3 + R 4 )i S 2
Mesh-current equations when a circuit contains a current source
Define the mesh currents in the usual fashion
Write the constraints that are imposed on the mesh currents by any
current sources.
Draw loops around all pairs of meshes that share a current source
Write KVL for all these loops and all other meshes except those
meshes that have a current source in an outside branch
Substitute the constraints imposed on the mesh currents by the
current sources into these equations and place them in standard form
 Ex 3.16 Determine V by writing mesh equations

I 1 = 1A
I 2 - I 3 = 2A

�I 1 = 1A
Constraints: �
�I 2 - I 3 = 2A
KVL around mesh 2 and 3
3(I 1 - I 3 ) + 4(I 1 - I 2 ) - 2I 2 - 2I 3 = 0
17
Substituting current constraints I 2 = A
11
24
Hence the voltage is V = 4(I 1 - I 2 ) = - V
11
 CHAPTER 5

The Energy Storage Elements

 5.1 The Capacitor
The capacitor is a device that stores charge
The charge and the applied voltage are
by the capacitance of the capacitor as
Q = CV
For a time varying source v(t) we hav
q(t) =C v(t)

The unit of capacitance is

coulomb/volt or Farad

For plates if size A (m2) separated by dista

d(m) with air in between the capacitance i
C = 8.84×10¹²ֿ A/d F
Figure 5.1 A parallel-plate capacitor.
 q (t ) =C v (t )
dq ( t )
i (t ) =
dt
dv ( t )
i (t ) =C
dt
Passive sign convention
1 t
v (t ) = �i ( t ) d t
C -�
 1 t
v (t ) = �i ( t ) d t
C -�

1 t0 1 t
v (t ) = � i ( t ) d t + �i ( t ) d t
C -� C t0

1 t0
v ( t0 ) = �i ( t ) d t
C -�

1 t
v (t ) =
C �i ( t ) d t + v ( t )
t0 0
 Capacitor Energy
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is:
p ( t ) =v ( t ) i ( t )
dv ( t )
= Cv ( t )
dt
The energy stored in a capacitor at a particular time can be found by:
t Assuming capacitor voltage is zero at t = -�
w ( t ) = �p ( t ) d t
-�
1 2
t
= C �v ( t )
dv ( t )
dt w ( t ) = Cv ( t )
-� dt 2
1 1
= Cv ( t ) - Cv ( -�)
2 2

2 2
 Example 5.1
A voltage source is applied to a 5-F capacitor as shown.
Sketch the capacitor current and the stored energy as a function of time.
 dv ( t )
i (t ) =C
dt
dv ( t )
i (t ) = 5
dt
 1
w (t ) = C v (t )
2

2
1
= �5v s ( t )
2

2
 Example 5.2
A current source is applied to a 5-F capacitor.
Sketch the capacitor voltage as a function of time.
 t
1
v (t ) = � i s ( t )d
5 -�

The capacitor voltage is related to area

Under current source. For example area
At t=3 s is 10+10+5 = 25 hence
V(3s)=25/5= 5V.
 5.1.1 Capacitors in Parallel

The terminal voltage is equal to the voltage of each capacitors

v(t) = v1(t) = v2(t)=….=vn(t)
The current entering the combination is the sum of currents of each capacitor
i(t) = i1(t)+i2(t)+…+in(t)
dv ( t )
From i (t ) =C dv ( t ) dv ( t ) dv ( t )
d (t ) i ( t ) = C1 +C 2 +L +C n
relation dt dt dt
dv ( t )
= ( C1 + C 2 + L + C n )
dt

C eq = C 1 + C 2 + L + C n
 5.1.1 Capacitors in Series

v(t) = v1(t) + v2(t) + …. + vn(t)

i(t) = i1(t) = i2(t) = … = in(t)

t t t
1 1 1
v (t ) = � i 1 ( t )d t + v 1 ( t 0 ) + � i 2 ( t )d t + v 2 ( t 0 ) + L + � i n ( t )d t + v n ( t 0 )
C1 t0 C 2 t0 C n t0
t
�1 1 1 �
=� + +L + �� i ( t )d t + v 1 ( t 0 ) + v 2 ( t 0 ) + L + v n ( t 0 )
�C1 C 2 Cn �t0 1 1 1 1
= + +L +
C eq C1 C 2 Cn
 The Inductor
A device that stores energy in its magnetic field

Y ( t ) = Li ( t )

The current produces a magnetic field round the wire

The relation between the voltage and current of inductor is
di ( t )
v (t ) = L
dt
This relation can be inverted to yield
t t
1 1
i (t ) = � v ( t )d t = � v ( t )d t + i ( t 0 )
L -� L t0
 The energy stored in an inductor

The instantaneous power of an inductor

di ( t )
p ( t ) = v ( t ) i ( t ) = Li ( t )
dt
Thus the energy stored in an inductor is
t
1 2 1 2
w (t ) = � p ( t )d t = Li ( t ) - Li ( -�)
-�
2 2

1 2
w ( t ) = Li ( t )
2
 Example 5.3
A current source is applied to a 5-H inductor as shown. Sketch the
voltage across the inductor versus time.
 di ( t )
v (t ) = L
dt
 1 2
w ( t ) = Li ( t )
2
 Example 5.4
A voltage source is applied to a 5-H inductor as shown.
Sketch the inductor current versus time.

t
1
i (t ) = � v ( t )d t
L -�
 t
1
i (t ) = � v ( t )d t
L -�
 Inductors in Series

v ( t ) = v 1 ( t ) +v 2 ( t ) + L +v n ( t )
di ( t ) di ( t ) di ( t )
v ( t ) = L1 + L2 + L + Ln
dt dt dt
di ( t ) Leq = L1 + L 2 + L + L n
= ( L1 + L 2 + L + L n )
dt
Inductors in Parallel

i ( t ) = i1 ( t ) + i 2 ( t ) + L + i n ( t )
t t
1 1
i (t ) = � v 1 ( t )d t + i 1 ( t 0 ) + L + � v n ( t )d t + i n ( t 0 )
L1 t 0 Ln t0

v ( t ) =v 1 ( t ) =v 2 ( t ) = L =v n ( t )
t
�1 1 �
i ( t ) = � +L + � � v ( t )d t + i 1 ( t 0 ) + L + i n ( t 0 )
�L1 Ln �
t0
1 �1 1 1 �
= � + +L + �
Lequ �L1 L 2 Ln �
v(t)=2t 0<t<1
V(t)= -2t+4 1<t<2

iL=t2/2 0<t<1
iL= -t2/2+2t 1<t<2
 Chapter 6
Sinusoidal Excitation of Circuits
 6.1 The Sinusoidal Source

Adding a phase angle to argument shift it backward

 cos wt = sin(wt + 90 )
o

sin wt = cos(wt - 90 )o

- sin wt = sin(wt �180 ) o

- cos wt = cos(wt �180 )

o

sin(wt �f ) = sin wt cos f �cos wt sin f

cos(wt �f ) = cos wt cos f msin wt sin f

sin(-f ) = - sin f cos(-f ) = cos f

 Example 6.1

Convert the cosine function 10 cos ( wt - 60�)

to a sine function and give its representation in terms
of sine and cosine function that have no phase angle.

10 cos(wt - 60 ) = 10sin(wt - 60 + 90 ) = 10sin(wt + 30 )

o o o o

10 cos(wt - 60 ) = 10 cos wt cos 60 + 10sin wt sin 60

o o o

= 5cos wt + 8.66sin wt
6.1.1 Representation of General Waveforms via the
Fourier Series

A general periodic function satisfies the property that

x (t ) = x (t �nT )

Where T is the period of the waveform

 It is possible to represent any periodic waveform as an
Infinite sum of sinusoids: a Fourier series

x (t ) = a0 + a1 cos w0t + a2 cos 2w0t + a3 cos 3w0t + ...

+ b1 sin w0t + b 2 sin 2w0t + b3 sin 3w0t + ...

where w0 = 2p f 0

f 0 = 1/T
 For example:

The sum of the

First seven terms

1 2 2 2 2
x (t ) = + sin 2p t + sin 6p t + sin10p t + sin14p t + ...
{2 {p 3p
{ 5p
{ 7p
{
a0 b1 b3 b5 b7
Once we replace the waveform that
has arbitrary time variation with the
sum of sinusoidal sources representing
the Fourier components of the waveform
we may apply superposition to determine
the response to the original waveform
as the sum of the responses to the individual
sinusoidal components of that waveform
 6.1.2 Response of Circuits to
Sinusoidal Sources

Will be discussed with

6.3 The Phasor (Frequency Domain) Circuit
 6.2 Complex Numbers, Complex Algebra,
and Euler’s Identity

Cˆ = a + jb
j = -1
a = ReCˆ
b = Im Cˆ
The complex number can be represented as
A vector in two-dimensional complex plan
The length of the vector is the magnitude of the complex number

C = Cˆ = a 2 + b 2
�b �
The angle is measured counterclockwise q = tan � �
-1

�a �
The polar representation of complex numbers in terms of its
magnitude and angle

Cˆ = C �q

a = C cos q
b = C sin q

Cˆ = C 2 3q + j C
1 cos 12sin3q = C (cos q + j sin q)
a b
 Euler’s Identity
jq
e = cos q + j sin q
= 1�q

From Euler’s identity we can prove that

jq - jq
e -e
sin q =
2j
jq - jq
e +e
cos q =
2
 Addition and Subtraction of Complex
Numbers
Aˆ = a + jb
For two numbers
Bˆ = c + jd

Aˆ + Bˆ = (a + c ) + j (b + d ) Re(Aˆ + Bˆ ) = Re Aˆ + Re Bˆ
Im(Aˆ + Bˆ ) = Im Aˆ + Im Bˆ
Aˆ - Bˆ = (a - c ) + j (b - d )
 Multiplication and Division of
Complex Numbers
Multiplication and division is best accomplished in polar form
ˆ ˆ = AB �(q + q )
AB
Aˆ = A �q A A B

Aˆ A
Bˆ = B �q B
= �(q A - q B )
Bˆ B
Multiplication and division can also be accomplished in
rectangular form

j = -1 j = -1
2
j =-j
3
j =1
4

ˆ ˆ = (a + jb )(c + jd ) = (ac - bd ) + j (ad + bc )

AB
Define conjugate of a complex number Cˆ = a + jb

Cˆ * = a - jb

In polar form Cˆ = C �q
Cˆ * = C �- q

ˆ ˆ
CC * = a + b = C �qC �- q = C
2 2 2
 Division in rectangular form
Multiply numerator and denominator by conjugate of
denominator
Aˆ Aˆ Bˆ * AB
ˆ ˆ * (a + jb )(c - jd ) �ac + bd � �bc - ad �
= = = = �2 �+ j �2 2 �
ˆ ˆ ˆ
B B B* B
2
c +d
2 2
�c + d
2
� �c + d �
Aˆ = a + jb
Bˆ = c + jd

Other identities that can be proven

(Aˆ *)* = Aˆ (Aˆ + Bˆ )* = Aˆ * + Bˆ *

ˆ ˆ )* = Aˆ * Bˆ * �Aˆ �
* Aˆ *
(AB �
�Bˆ �
� =
� � Bˆ *
6.3 The Phasor (Frequency- Domain) Circuit

We will represent inductors and capacitors as complex

valued resistors and use all previous analysis
techniques to solve problems
 Response of Linear Circuit to
Sinusoidal Source

• The response will be the same trigonometric

functions as the source with the same frequency

• Differs from the source in magnitude and phase

• Our task is to determine the magnitude and

phase angle of currents and voltages
6.3.1 Representation of Sinusoidal Sources with
Euler’s Identity
e jq = cos q + j sin q
= 1�q
 The key
To determine to the Phasor
the response to eithermethod:
a sine or
a cosine source, replace the source with the
complex exponential source and use superposition
• The response to A cos ( wt + source
f) is the real part
j ( wt +f )
to the source
Ae

• Similarly, the response to A sin ( wt + source

f) is the
j ( wt +f )
imaginary part to the Asource
e
 6.3.2 The Phasor Circuit
(Frequency-domain circuit)
• Replace the source A sin(wt +or f) A cos(wt + f )
with exponential source Ae j (wt +f ) = Ae j fe j wt = (A �f )e j wt
• Represent all response voltages and currents as having
the same form Vˆ (t ) = V �qV e jwt Iˆ(t ) = I �q I e jwt
123 {
Vˆ Iˆ

• Cancel the factor e j win t source and all response

variables
• Replace the resistors, inductors, and capacitors with their
impedances
 Resistor Impedance
Vˆ
For resistor, the impedance is Zˆ R = R = R
IˆR
 Inductor Impedance
• The pahsor current and voltage of the inductor are
related by d
VˆL ej wt
=L IˆL e
j wt ˆ
= ( j w L )I L e j wt

dt

Impedance of inductor is

Vˆ
Zˆ L = L = j w L
IˆL
 Capacitor Impedance

d ˆ j wt
IˆC e j wt ˆ
= C V C e = ( j wC )V C e j wt

dt
ˆ 1 1 j
ˆ
ZC =
V C
=
1
=-j
1 = =-j
IˆC j wC wC j j j
6.4 Applications of Resistive-Circuit Analysis
Techniques in the Phasor Circuit
Ex 6.4:Determine the voltage v(t) in the circuit

Replace: source 2cos ( 5t +with

30o) 2�30 e o j 5t

desired voltage v(t) with ˆ

Ve j 5t
Common factor j 5is
t removed from all
e
Impedance of capacitor is 1 1 1 1
= = =-j
j wC j 5 � j 2 2
5
 A single-node pair circuit
1� 1� 1
�-j � �- 90o
ˆ �
�1 �� �
1� 2� 2� 4
V =�
� ��- j �
��2�30 o
= �2�30 o
= �2�30o = 0.707�- 15o
�2 ��
� 2�
� 1 1 1
-j 2�- 45o
2 2 2
Hence time-domain voltage becomes
ˆ
v (t ) = Re(V e ) = Re(0.707�- 15 e ) = Re(0.707e
j 5t o j 5t j (5t -15o)
)
= Re[0.707 cos(5t - 15o) + j 0.707 sin(5t - 15o)] = 0.707 cos(5t - 15o) V
Since the source was a cosine we take the real part
 Ex 6.5 Determine the current i(t) and voltage v(t)

Single loop phasor circuit

o o
2 � 30 2 �30
The current Iˆ = = = 0.185�- 26.31o
6 + j 12 - j 3 6 + j 9
By voltage division
j 12 - j 3 9 �90 o
Vˆ = 2�30o = 2�30o = 1.66�63.69o
6 + j 12 - j 3 6+ j9
i (t ) = 0.185sin(4t - 26.31o) A
The time-domain
v (t ) = 1.66sin(4t + 63.69 ) V
o
 Ex 6.6 Determine the current i(t)

The phasor circuit is

Combine resistor and inductor

o
(3)( j 3) 9�90 3 3 3
3 j3= = = �45o
= + j
3 + j 3 3 2�45o 2 2 2
 3 3
3 j3= + j
2 2

Use current division to obtain capacitor current

3
�45o
ˆ 3 j3 2
I = 10�- 60o = 10�- 60o = 13.42�- 33.43o
3 j 3- j1 3 3
+ j - j1
2 2
Hence time-domain current is:

i (t ) = 13.42 cos(3t - 33.43 ) Ao

 Ex 6.7 Determine i(t) using source transformation

Phasor circuit Transformed source

oltage of source: j 6 �5�75=д�

o
=� 5 75
6 90 o o
30 165 o

o
30 �165
Hence the current Iˆ = = 6.71�101.57o
2+ j6- j 2

In time-domain i (t ) = 6.71sin(2t + 101.57 ) Ao

Ex 6.9 Find voltage v(t) by reducing the phasor
circuit at terminals a and b to a Thevenin equivalent
Phasor circuit

2
VˆOC = 2�10o = 0.43�- 67.47o
2+ j9
 ˆ 4
Z TH = - j + 2 j 9 = 2.11�- 25.52o = 1.91 - j 0.91
3

j6 j6
Vˆ = ˆ
V OC = 0.43�- 67.47 = 0.48�- 46.94
o o
ˆ
j 6 + Z TH j 6 + 1.91 - j 0.91
1 4 44 2 4 4 43
1.10 �20.53o
 v (t ) = 0.48cos(3t - 46.94o) V

v OC (t ) = 0.43cos(3t - 67.47o) V

The Thevenin impedance can be modeled as 1.19 resistor in series

with a capacitor with value
1
= 0.91
(w = 3)C

or C = 0.37 F
 6.5 Circuits Containing More than One
Sinusoidal Source

• Apply superposition in the time domain to

yield time-domain circuits with one
sinusoidal source. Then solve each of these
one-source circuits by reducing them to
phasor circuit.
Ex 6.10 Determine i(t)
 10�- 30o 4
Iˆ' = = 1.77�- 75o Iˆ'' = 2�40o = 1.11�- 16.31o
w =2 4 + j4
w =3 4 + j6

i (t ) = 1.77 cos(2t - 75 ) A
' o i '' (t ) = 1.11sin(3t - 16.31o) A

i(t ) = i ' (t ) + i '' (t ) = 1.77 cos(2t - 75o) + 1.11sin(3t - 16.31o) A

Cannot simplify further because radian frequencies are different

 6.5.1 Sources of the Same Frequency

• Sinusoidal sources of the same radian

frequency can be combined into one phasor
circuit. However, all sources must be either
sine or cosine form
 Ex 6.11 Determine i(t) by placing both sinusoidal
sources in the same phasor circuit

Superposition in frequency domain Iˆ'' =

4
2�130o = 1.41�85o
o
5� 30 4 + j4
Iˆ' = = 0.88�- 15o
4 + j4

ˆI = Iˆ' + Iˆ'' = 0.88�- 15o + 1.41�85o = 1.53�50.38o

In time-domain: i (t ) = 1.53sin(2t + 50.38 ) A o

 If use superposition in time-domain

o
5� 30 4
Iˆa = = 0.88�- 15o Iˆb = 2�40o = 1.41�- 5o
4 + j4 4 + j4

ia (t ) = 0.88sin(2t - 15 ) A
o ib (t ) = 1.41cos(2t - 5o) A

i (t ) = ia (t ) + ib (t ) = 0.88sin(2t - 15o) + 1.41cos(2t - 5o) A

= 0.98sin 2t + 1.18cos 2t
= 1.53sin(2t + 50.38o) A
 6.6 Power

he instantaneous power
elivered to an element is

p( t) = v( t) i( t)
= V sin ( wt + qV ) I sin ( wt + qI )
VI VI
= cos ( qV - qI ) - cos ( 2wt + qV + q I )
2 2

The average power is

T
1 VI
PAV = � p ( t ) dt = cos ( qV - qI )
T0 2
Average power is real power dissipated by the element usually in the
form of heat or converted to useful work as in an electric motor.
It can be computed also through the complex power

ˆP = 1 VI*
ˆˆ
2
1
= ( V�qV ) ( I�- qI )
2
1
= VI�( qV - qI )
2
1 1
= VI cos ( qV - qI ) + j VIsin ( qV - qI )
2 2
1 1
P̂ = VI cos ( qV - qI ) + j VI sin ( qV - qI )
2 2
 The complex power
1 1
P̂ = VI cos ( qV - q t ) + j VIsin ( qV - q t )
2 2
The magnitude of the complex power 1/2VI is referred to as
apparent power and its units are VA.

The real part of the complex power is the average power:

PAV ˆ 1
2
ˆ(ˆ 1
2
)
= Re P = Re VI * = VI cos ( qV - qt )Watts

The imaginary part of the complex power is the reactive power:

ˆ 1
2
ˆ ˆ 1
2
( )
Q = Im P = Im VI* = VIsin ( qV - q t )
Reactive power represents energy stored in reactive elements
(inductors and capacitors). Its unit is Volt-Amperes Reactive VAR
 In any circuit, conservation of complex power is achieved

� allcircuit elements
P̂i = 0

This implies that in any circuit, conservation of average power and

Conservation of reactive power are achieved

�allcircuit elements Qi = 0 � allcircuit elements

Pi,AV = 0

However, the apparent power (the magnitude of the complex power)

is not conserved
 Ex:6.13 Determine the average and reactive
power delivered by the source.

10�- 30o
he phasor current leaving the source is Î = = 1.86�- 98.2o
2 + j8 - j3
The average power delivered by the source is:
1 �
PAV,source = Re ( 10�- 30 ) ( 1.86�- 98.2 ) �
*

2 � �
1
= Re � ( 10�- 30 ) ( 1.86�98.2 ) �
� �
2
= 9.28cos ( -30 + 98.2 ) = 3.45W
The reactive power delivered by the source is:

1
Qsource = Im � � ( 10�- 30 ) ( 1.86�- 98.2 ) *�
�
2
1
= Im � �( 10�- 30 ) ( 1.86�98.2 ) �
�
2
= 9.28sin ( -30 + 98.2 ) = 8.62VAR

And the complex power delivered by the source is

P̂source = PAV,source + jQsource

= 3.45 + j8.62VA
 Determine the average power and reactive power
delivered to each element
The voltage across the elements are: Î = 1.86�- 98.2o

ˆ = 2Iˆ = 3.71�- 98.2

VR

ˆ = j8Iˆ = 14.86�- 8.2

VL

ˆ = - j3Iˆ = 5.57�- 188.2

V C

Thus the complex power delivered to each element is

ˆP = 1 V
ˆ ˆI* = 3.45 + j0
R R
2
ˆP = 1 V
ˆ ˆI* = 0 + j13.79
L L
2
ˆP = 1 V
ˆ ˆI* = 0 - j5.17
C C
2
show that conservation of complex power, average
power, and reactive power is achieved.

Pˆsource = Pˆ R + Pˆ L + PˆC
3.45 + j8.62 = 3.45 + j0 + 0 + j13.79 + 0 - j5.17

PAV,source = PAV,R + PAV,L + PAV,C

3.45 = 3.45 + 0 + 0

Qsource = QR + QL + QC
8.62 = 0 + 13.79 - 5.17
 6.6.1 Power Relations for the Resistor

ˆ = RIˆ
VR R

The voltage and current are in phase so q V - q I = 0o

1 VR2 1 2
Average power is: PAV,R = = IR R
2 R 2

Reactive power is zero for resistor QR = 0

 6.6.1 Power Relations for the Inductor

VL = jwLI L = ( wL�90 ) I L
ˆ ˆ o ˆ

The voltage leads the current by 90 so that qV - qI = 90 o

1
PAV,L = VL I L cos 90 = 0
o

2
1 1
Q L = VL I L sin 90 = VL I L
o

2 2
 6.6.1 Power Relations for the Capacitor

The current leads the voltage by 90 so that qV - qI = -90o

ˆI = jwCVˆ = ( wC�90o ) Vˆ
C C C

ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ �1 �
ˆI
VC = IC = - j IC = � �- 90o � C
jwC wC �wC �
1
PAV,C = VC IC cos ( -90o ) = 0
2
1 1
QC = VC IC sin ( -90 ) = - VC I C
o

2 2
 6.6.2 Power Factor

ˆP = 1 VI
ˆ ˆ*
2
PAV =
VI
cos ( qV - qI ) pf = cos ( qV - qI )
2
1
VI
Q = sin ( qV - qI ) PAV = VI �pf
2 2
0 �pf �1
P̂ = PAV + jQ
Since qV - q I = m90o
EX:6.15 Determine the average and reactive powers
delivered to the load impedance and the power factor of the
load

5 + j9 - j2
V̂load = 100�0o = 54.41�- 0.84o
4 + j6 + 5 + j9 - j2
100�0o
Îload = = 6.32�- 55.3o
4 + j6 + 5 + j9 - j2
1ˆ 2 1
= IL �5 = ( 6.32 ) �5 = 100W
2
Only through the resistor PAV,load
2 2
1 1
Qload = Vload Iload sin(qV - qI ) = ( 54.41) ( 6.32 ) sin ( -0.84 + 55.3 ) = 140VAR
2 2
This could also be calculated from the complex power
delivered to the load

1 1
ˆ ˆI = ( 54.41�- 0.84 ) ( 6.32�- 55.3 ) *
Pˆload = V *
load load
o o

2 2
= 100 + j140VA

The power factor of the load is:

pf = cos ( qv - qI ) = cos ( -0.84 + 55.3) = 0.581

The load is lagging because the current lags the voltage

 A typical power distribution circuit

The consumer is charged for the average power consumed by the load
VI VI
cos ( qV - qI ) = �pf
2 2

VI
The load requires a certain total apparent power
2
 Ex 6.16 Suppose that the load voltage in the previous figure is 170V,
the line resistance is 0.1 ohm and the load requires 10KW of average
power. Examine the line losses for a load power factor of unity and for
a power factor of 0.7 lagging.

The load current is obtained from PAV = 12 VL I L ( pf )

2 ( 10KW )
For unity power factor this is IL = = 117.65A
( 170V ) ( 1)
2 ( 10KW )
For power factor of 0.7 IL = = 168.07A
( 170V ) ( 0.7 )
1 2 692.04W ( unity pf )
The powers consumed in the line losses PAV,line = IL R line =
2 1412.33W ( pf = 0.7 )

10, 692.04W ( unity pf )

The power needed to be generated PAV,gen =
11, 412.33W ( pf = 0.7 )

720 W extra power to be generated if pf is 0.7 to supply the load

 Power Factor Correction
Ex: 6.17: in Ex 6.16 determine the value of capacitor across the load to correct
the power factor to unity if power frequency is 60Hz.

The angle of the current is: qI = - cos -1 ( 0.7 ) = -45.57(Negative

o
because lagging)

Î
Thus the current into the load is: L = 168.07 �- 45.57 o

Î
The current through the added capacitor is: C = j wC �170 �0 o

Hence the total current ˆI = ˆI + ˆI = 168.07�- 45.57o + jwC �170�0o

line L C

= 117.66 - j120.02 + j ( 2p�60 ) C �170�0o

C = 1873F
Solving this to cancel out the reactive component gives:

C=120.02/(2*3.14*60*170)=0.001873F
 6.6.3 Maximum Power Transfer

Source-load Configuration

Determine the load impedance so that maximum average power is delivered

that load.
Represent the source and the load impedances with real and imaginary parts:
Zˆ S = R S + jX S
Zˆ L = R L + jX L

The load current is: VˆS VˆS

IˆL = =
ˆ ˆ
Z S + Z L ( RS + RL ) + j ( X S + X L )
 The average power delivered to the load is:
1 ˆ 2 1 V S2 R L
PAV ,load = I L RL =
2 2 (R S + R L ) 2 + j (X S + X L ) 2

Since the reactance can be negative and to max value, we choose

X L = -X S
1 V S2 R L
leaving PAV ,load =
2 (R S + R L ) 2

Differentiate with respect to RL and set to zero to determine required RL

which is RL= RS
Hence: Zˆ L = Zˆ S*

In this case the load is matched to the source.

V S2
The max power delivered to the load becomes: PAV ,load ,max =
8R S
 6.6.4 Superposition of Average Power
Average power computation when circuit contains more than one source
 �i ' (t ) = I 1 sin(w1t + q I 1 )
V s sin(w1t + f1 ) � � '
�v (t ) =V 1 sin(w1t + qV 1 )
�i '' (t ) = I 2 sin(w2t + q I 2 )
I s sin(w2t + f2 ) � � ''
�v (t ) =V 2 sin(w2t + qV 2 )

The instantaneous power delivered to the element is

p (t ) = v (t )i (t ) = (v ' + v '' )(i ' + i '' ) = (v 'i ' +v ''i '' ) + (v 'i '' +v ''i ' )
Substituting
p (t ) = [V 1 sin(w1t + qV 1 )I 1 sin(w1t + q I 1 ) +V 2 sin(w2t + qV 2 ) I 2 sin(w2t + q I 2 )]
+ [V 1 sin(w1t + qV 1 ) I 2 sin(w2t + q I 2 ) +V 2 sin(w2t + qV 2 )I 1 sin(w1t + q I 1 )]

Using the identity 1 1

sin A sin B = cos(A - B ) - cos(A + B )
2 2
 V 1I 1 V I
p (t ) = cos(qV 1 - q I 1 ) + 2 2 cos(qV 2 - q I 2 ) Average powers delivered individually by the sources
124 44 2 4 4 43 1 24 44 2 4 4 43
PAV 1 PAV 2

VI V I
- 1 1 cos(2w1t + qV 1 + q I 1 ) - 2 2 cos(2w2t + qV 2 + q I 2 )
2 2
VI VI
+ 1 2 cos[(w1 - w2 )t + qV 1 - q I 2 ] - 1 2 cos[(w1 + w2 )t + qV 1 + q I 2 ]
2 2
V I V I
+ 2 1 cos[(w2 - w1 )t + qV 2 - q I 1 ] - 2 1 cos[(w2 + w1 )t + qV 2 + q I 1 ]
2 2

w
Suppose that the two frequencies are integer multiples of some frequency
as w1 = nw and w2 = m w
The instantaneous power becomes
V 1I 1 V I
p (t ) = cos(qV 1 - q I 1 ) + 2 2 cos(qV 2 - q I 2 )
124 44 2 4 4 43 1 24 44 2 4 4 43
PAV 1 PAV 2

V 1I 1 V I
- cos(2nwt + qV 1 + q I 1 ) - 2 2 cos(2m wt + qV 2 + q I 2 )
2 2
VI VI
+ 1 2 cos[(n - m )wt + qV 1 - q I 2 ] - 1 2 cos[(n + m )wt + qV 1 + q I 2 ]
2 2
V 2I 1 V 2I 1
+ cos[(m - n )wt + qV 2 - q I 1 ] - cos[(m + n )wt + qV 2 + q I 1 ]
2 2
Averaging the instantaneous over the common periodT = 2p / w
1 T
PAV = �p (t )dt
T 0
�PAV 1 + PAV 2 if n �m
�
=� V 1I 2 V 2I 1
�PAV 1 + PAV 2 + cos(qV 1 - q I 2 ) + cos(qV 2 - q I 1 ) if n = m
� 2 2

THUS: we may superimpose the average powers delivered by sources of

different frequencies, but we may not, in general, apply superposition to
average power if the sources are of the same frequency.

V 1I 1 1
where PAV 1 = cos(qV 1 - q I 1 ) = Re(Vˆ1Iˆ1* )
2 2
V I 1
PAV 2 = 2 2 cos(qV 2 - q I 2 ) = Re(Vˆ2 Iˆ2* )
2 2
Ex 6.18: Determine the average power delivered by the
two sources of the circuit

o
10 � 30
Iˆ =
'
= 2.357�- 15o
2 + j 4 +1- j 1

Hence the average power delivered by the voltage source is

1 1
'
PAV = Re(10�30oIˆ ' *) = �10 �2.357 �cos(30o + 15o) = 8.333 W
2 2
This can be confirmed from average powers delivered to the two resistors
PAV'
= PAV
'
,2  + P '
AV ,1

1 ˆ' 2 1 ˆ' 2
= I 2 + I 1 = 8.333 W
2 2
 By current division:
2
1- j
Iˆx'' = 3 3�- 60o = 0.589�- 154.33o
2
2 + j 6 +1- j
3
ˆ 2+ j6
Iy =
''
3�- 60o = 3.101�- 49.08o
2
2 + j 6 +1- j
3
The voltage across the current source is Vˆ '' = (2 + j 6)Iˆx'' = 3.727�- 82.77o

Hence the average power delivered by the current source is

1 ˆ 1
PAV = Re(V 3�60 ) = �3.727 �3 �cos(-82.77 o + 60o) = 5.154 W
'' '' o

2 2
This may be again confirmed by computing the average power delivered to the
1 ˆ '' 2 1 ˆ '' 2
Two resistors: PAV = PAV ,2 + PAV ,1 = I x 2 + I y 1 = 5.154 W
'' '' ''

2 2
Since frequencies are not the same, total average power delivered is the sum
of average powers delivered individually by each source
 EX 6.19: Determine the average power delivered by the
two sources

Since both sources have the same frequency, we can’t use superposition.
So we include both sources in one phasor circuit. The total average power
delivered by the sources is equal to the average power delivered to the resistor

We use superposition on the phasor circuit to find the current across the resistor

10 � 0 o -j2
Iˆ =
'
= 3.536�- 45o Iˆ'' = - 5�- 60o = 3.536�- 15o
2+ j 4- j 2 2+ j 4- j 2

Iˆ = Iˆ ' + Iˆ'' = 3.536�- 45o + 3.536�- 15o = 6.831�- 30o

 The phasor current is: Iˆ = Iˆ' + Iˆ'' = 3.536�- 45o + 3.536�- 15o = 6.831�- 30o
1 ˆ2
Hence the average power delivered to the resistor isPAV = I �2 = 46.66 W
2
Note that we may not superimpose average powers delivered to the resistors by t
individual sources 1 ˆ' 2 1 ˆ '' 2
I �2 + I �2 = 25 �46.66
2 2

We can compute this total average power by directly computing the average po
delivered by the sources from the phasor circuit
The voltage across the current source is
Vˆ = 10�0o - (2 + j 4) Iˆ = 22.88�- 132.63o

The average power delivered by voltage source is

1
PAV , voltage source = Re[(10�0o)Iˆ* ] = 29.58 W
2
The average power delivered by the current source is
1
PAV , current source = Re[Vˆ (5�60o)] = 17.08 W
2
The total average power delivered by the sources is
PAV , source = 29.58 + 17.08 = 46.66 W
 6.6.5 Effective (RMS) Values of Periodic Waveforms
Sinusoidal waveform is one of more general periodic waveforms
Apply a periodic current source with period T on resistor R
i (t ) = i (t �nT ) n = 0,1, 2,3,...
The instantaneous power delivered to the resistor is
p (t ) = i 2 (t )R
The average power delivered to the resistor is
1 T �1 T 2 �
= � = �
2
PAV i (t ) R dt R � i (t )dt �
T 0
�T
1 44 2 4 43�
0

2
I eff

Hence the average power delivered to the resistor by this periodic waveform
can be viewed as equivalent to that produced by a DC waveform whose value is
1 T
= � (t )dt
2
I eff i
T 0

This is called the effective value of the waveform or the root-mean-square

RMS value of the waveform
 Ex 6.20 Determine the RMS value of the current
waveform and the average power this would deliver to
resistor 3

The RMS value of the waveform is

1 1
I rms = �
3 0
4dt = 1.155 A

Hence the average power delivered to the resistor is

PAV = I rms
2
�3 = 4 W
 RMS voltages and currents in phasor circuits
The sinusoid x ( t ) = X sin ( wt + fhas
) a RMS value of

1 T X
X rms = �[ X sin(wt + f )]2
dt = = 0.707X
T 0
2
Hence the average power delivered to a resistor by a sinusoidal voltage or current
waveform is 2
1 V 2 V rms 1 2
PAV ,R = = = I R = I rms R
2

2 R R 2
n general, the average power delivered to an element is

1 �Vˆ Iˆ* �
PAV = Re(Vˆˆ
I *) = Re � �= Re(
V ˆ ˆ *
rms rms )
I
2 �2 2�
Therefore, if sinusoidal voltages and currents are specified in their RMS values
rather than their peak values, the factor ½ is removed from all average-power
expressions. However, the time-domain expressions require a magnitude multiplie
by square root of 2
X sin(wt + f ) = 2X rms sin(wt + f ) �X rms sin(wt + f )
Since X is the peak value of the waveform. Common household voltage are specif
as 120V. This is the RMS value of the peak of 170V.
Ex 6.21 Determine the average power delivered by the
source and the time-domain current i(t)

Phasor circuit with rms rather than peak

The phasor current is 7.07�30o

Iˆrms = = 1.25�- 15o
4+ j 4

Hence the average power delivered by the source is

1
PAV , source = ReVˆrms Iˆrms
*
= Re[(7.07�30o)(1.25�15o)] = 6.25 W = Re[(10�30o)(1.25 2�15o)]
2

The time-domain current is

i (t ) = 2I rms cos(2t - 15o) = 1.77 cos(2t - 15o) A

 6.9 Commercial Power Distribution
Vˆan = V p �0o
Vˆbn = V p �- 120o
Vˆcn = V p �120o
Visp rms value of the voltage
The peak is 2 Vp

V p �0o + V p �- 120o + V p �120o = 0

Time domain representation

van (t ) = 2V p sin wt V
vbn (t ) = 2V p sin(wt - 120o) V
vcn (t ) = 2V p sin(wt + 120o) V
The line-to-line voltage between conductors of the transmission line are the
phasor sums of the phase voltages

Vˆab = Vˆan - Vˆbn = V p �0o - V p �- 120o = 3V p �30o

Vˆac = Vˆan - Vˆcn = V p �0o - V p �120o = 3V p �- 30o
Vˆbc = Vˆbn - Vˆcn = V p �- 120o - V p �120o = 3V p �- 90o

Thus the line-to-line voltages are 3 larger than the phase voltages:

VL = 3 V p
 6.9.1 Wye-Connected Loads
Transmission of power from generator to the load

The three impedances making up the load are identical (Balanced

load)V p �0o
Iˆa =
Zˆ L
V � - 120 o

Iˆb =
p

Zˆ L
o
V �120
Iˆc =
p

Zˆ L
V �0 o
+ V �- 120 o
+ V �120 o

Iˆa + Iˆb + Iˆc =

p p p
=0
ˆ
Z
L

Hence the current returning through the neutral wire is zero,

and the neutral may be removed
• For a balanced wye-connected load, the voltages
across the individual loads are the respective phase
voltages whether the neutral is connected or not.
• The power delivered to the individual loads is three
times the power delivered to an individual load,
because the individual loads are identical.

o
� V � 0 � V 2

= 3Re(V p �0o Iˆa* ) = 3Re � cos q Z L

p p
PAV , total V p �0o �= 3
� Zˆ � ZL
*
� L �
No ½ factor in power expression because values are rms
Power in terms of line-to-line voltages and load current gives

VL
PAV , total =3 I L cos q Z L = 3VL I L cos q Z L
3
Example 6.24
Consider a balanced, wye-connected load where each load
impedance is Zˆ L = 50 + j 50 
and the phase voltages are 120 V. Determine the total average
power delivered to the load. Iˆ = 120�0o = 1.7�- 45o A
a
The line currents are 50 + j50
120 � - 120 o
Iˆb = = 1.7�- 165o A
50 + j 50
o
120 �120
Iˆc = = 1.7�75o A
50 + j 50

Hence, the average power delivered to each load is

PAV = Re[(120�0o)(1.7�45o)]
= 120 �1.7 �cos(45o) = 144 W

The total average power delivered to the load is

PAV , total = 3 �144 = 432 W
Example 6.25
If the line voltage of a balanced, wye-connected load is 208 V and
the total average power delivered to the load is 900 W, determine
each load if their power factors are 0.8 leading.
900 W = 3 V L I L cos q Z L
900
Thus IL = = 3.12 A
3(208)(0.8)

VL
The phase voltage isVp = 3
= 120 V

Vp
Thus the magnitude of the individual load impedanceZis
L = = 38.43 
IL
Since the power factor is 0.8 leading (current leads voltage; voltage lags curren
q Z L = - cos -1 0.8 = -36.87o.

Thus the individual loads are Zˆ L = 38.43�- 36.87o = 30.74 - j 23.06 