EE221-Lecture-13,14,15,16 17

Digital
Fundamentals
Tenth Edition
Floyd
Chapter 4
© 2009 Pearson Education,©Upper

2008 Pearson Education
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
Summary
Boolean Addition
In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to represent

an action, a condition, or data. A single variable can only
have a value of 1 or 0.
The complement represents the inverse of a variable and is indicated
with an overbar. Thus, the complement of A is A.
A literal is a variable or its complement.
Addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The sum term is 1 if one or
more if the literals are 1. The sum term is zero only if each literal is 0.
Determine the values of A, B, and C that make the sum term
of the expression A + B + C = 0?
Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
Summary
Boolean Multiplication
In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the AND

operation. The product of literals forms a product term. The
product term will be 1 only if all of the literals are 1.
What are the values of the A, B and C if the

product term of A.B.C = 1?
Each literal must = 1; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 0.
Summary
Commutative Laws
The commutative laws are applied to addition and

multiplication. For addition, the commutative law states
In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ORed makes no difference.
A+B=B+A
For multiplication, the commutative law states

In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ANDed makes no difference.
AB = BA
Summary
Associative Laws
The associative laws are also applied to addition and

multiplication. For addition, the associative law states
When ORing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A + (B +C) = (A + B) + C
For multiplication, the associative law states

When ANDing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A(BC) = (AB)C
Summary
Distributive Law
The distributive law is the factoring law. A common

variable can be factored from an expression just as in
ordinary algebra. That is
AB + AC = A(B+ C)
The distributive law can be illustrated with equivalent
circuits:
A
AB
B B
B+ C
C X
X A
A AC
C
A(B+ C) AB + AC
Summary
Rules of Boolean Algebra
1. A + 0 = A 7. A . A = A
2. A + 1 = 1 8. A . A = 0
=
3. A . 0 = 0 9. A = A
4. A . 1 = A 10. A + AB = A
5. A + A = A 11. A + AB = A + B
6. A + A = 1 12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC
Summary
Rules of Boolean algebra can be illustrated with Venn

diagrams. The variable A is shown as an area.
The rule A + AB = A can be illustrated easily with a diagram. Add
an overlapping area to represent the variable B.
The overlap region between A and B represents AB.
A B A
AB =
The diagram visually shows that A + AB = A. Other rules can be

illustrated with the diagrams as well.
Summary
Illustrate the rule A + AB = A + B with a Venn
diagram.
This time, A is represented by the blue area and B

again by the red circle. The intersection represents
AB. Notice that A + AB = A + B
A
A BA
AB
Summary
Rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC, can
be proven by applying earlier rules as follows:
(A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
= A . 1 + BC
= A + BC
This rule is a little more complicated, but it can also be

shown with a Venn diagram, as given on the following
slide…
Summary
Three areas represent the variables A, B, and C.
The area representing A + B is shown in yellow.
The area representing A + C is shown in red.
The overlap of red and yellow is shown in orange.
The overlapping area between B and C represents BC.

ORing with A gives the same area as before.
A B A B
A+B
A+C = BC
C C
(A + B)(A + C) A + BC
Summary
DeMorgan’s Theorem
DeMorgan’s 1st Theorem

The complement of a product of variables is
equal to the sum of the complemented variables.
AB = A + B
Applying DeMorgan’s first theorem to gates:
A A
AB A+B Inputs Output
B B
A B AB A + B
NAND Negative-OR 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
Summary
DeMorgan’s 2nd Theorem

The complement of a sum of variables is equal to
the product of the complemented variables.
A+B=A.B
Applying DeMorgan’s second theorem to gates:
A A Inputs Output
A+B AB
B B
A B A + B AB
NOR Negative-AND 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
Summary
Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to remove the

overbar covering both terms from the
expression X = C + D.
To apply DeMorgan’s theorem to the expression,

you can break the overbar covering both terms and
change the sign between the terms. This results in
=
X = C . D. Deleting the double bar gives X = C . D.
Summary
Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to simplify
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Summary
Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to derive the
expressions for exclusive NOR from
exclusive OR expression
Summary
Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
Combinational logic circuits can be analyzed by writing

the expression for each gate and combining the
expressions according to the rules for Boolean algebra.
Apply Boolean algebra to derive the expression for X.
Write the expression for each gate:

A (A + B )
C (A + B )
B
C X = C (A + B )+ D
D
Applying DeMorgan’s theorem and the distribution law:
X = C (A B) + D = A B C + D
Summary
SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this
expression:
=
=
= = =
Summary
SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify
these expressions
Summary
SOP and POS forms
Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-products

form (SOP) or in the product-of-sums form (POS). These
forms can simplify the implementation of combinational
logic, particularly with PLDs. In both forms, an overbar
cannot extend over more than one variable.
An expression is in SOP form when two or more product terms are
summed as in the following examples:
ABC+AB ABC+CD CD+E
An expression is in POS form when two or more sum terms are
multiplied as in the following examples:
(A + B)(A + C) (A + B + C)(B + D) (A + B)C
Summary
SOP Standard form
In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must

appear in each term. This form is useful for constructing
truth tables or for implementing logic in PLDs.
You can expand a nonstandard term to standard form by multiplying the
term by a term consisting of the sum of the missing variable and its
complement.
Convert X = A B + A B C to standard form.

The first term does not include the variable C. Therefore,
multiply it by the (C + C), which = 1:
X = A B (C + C) + A B C
=ABC+ABC+ABC
Summary
SOP Standard form
Convert A B C + A B + A B C D to standard form.
Summary
AND/OR Implementation of an SOP Expression
AB + BCD + AC
Summary
NAND/NAND Implementation of an SOP Expression
AB + BCD + AC
Summary
Binary Representation of a Standard Product Term
In SOP standard form, a standard product term is equal to 1
for only one combination of variable values.
For example, the product term ABCD is 1
when A = 1, B = 0, C = 1, and D = 0.
ABCD = 1. 0. 1 . 0 = 1. 1 . 1 . 1 = 1
An SOP expression is equal to 1 only if one or more

of the product terms in the expression is equal to 1.
Summary
Determine the binary values for which the following
standard SOP expression is equal to 1:
ABCD + ABCD + ABCD
The term ABCD = 1, The given SOP = 1
when A = 1, B = 1, C = 1, and D = 1 when one of three
 ABCD = 1. 1. 1 . 1 = 1 product terms is 1,
The term ABCD = 1, i.e.
when A = 1, B = 0, C = 0, and D = 1 ABCD = 1, or
 ABCD = 1. 0. 0 . 1 = 1. 1. 1 . 1 = 1 ABCD = 1, or
ABCD = 1
The term ABCD = 1,
when A = 0, B = 0, C = 0, and D = 0
 ABCD = 0. 0. 0 . 0 = 1. 1. 1 . 1 = 1
Summary
SOP Standard form
The Logic Converter in Multisim can convert a circuit into
standard SOP form.
Use Multisim to view the logic for the circuit
in standard SOP form.
Click the truth table to logic

button on the Logic Converter.
See next slide…
Summary
SOP Standard form
SOP
Standard
form
Summary
POS Standard form
In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must

appear in each sum term of the expression.
You can expand a nonstandard POS expression to standard form by
adding the product of the missing variable and its complement and
applying rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC.
Convert X = (A + B)(A + B + C) to standard form.
The first sum term does not include the variable C.

Therefore, add C C and expand the result by rule 12.
X = (A + B + C C)(A + B + C)
= (A +B + C )(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
Summary
POS Standard form
Convert (A + B + C)(B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)
to POS form.
Summary
AND/OR Implementation of an POS Expression
(A + B)(B + C + D)(A + C)
Summary
Binary Representation of a Standard Sum Term
In POS standard form, a standard sum term is equal to 0
for only one combination of variable values.
For example, the sum term A + B + C + D is 0
when A = 0, B = 1, C = 0, and D = 1,
A POS expression is equal to 0 only if one or more

of the sum terms in the expression is equal to 0.
Summary
Determine the binary values for which the following
standard POS expression is equal to 0:
(A + B + C + D) (A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)
The term A + B + C + D = 0, The given POS = 0
when A = 0, B = 0, C = 0, and D = 0 when one of three
 A+B+C+D=0+0+0+0=0 sum terms is 0, i.e.
The term A + B + C + D = 0, A + B + C + D = 0, or
when A = 0, B = 1, C = 1, and D = 0 A + B + C + D = 0, or
 A+B+C+D=0+0+0+0=0 A+B+C+D=0
The term A + B + C + D = 0,
when A = 1, B = 1, C = 1, and D = 1
 A+B+C+D=0+0+0+0=0
Summary
Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS
Binary values of the product terms in any standard SOP expression
are not present in the equivalent standard POS expression.
Also, the binary values that are not represented in the SOP
expression are present in the equivalent POS expression.
SOP  POS Conversion steps:
Step 1: Evaluate each product term in the SOP expression.
i.e., determine the binary numbers that represent the product
terms.
Step 2: Determine all of the binary numbers not included in
the evaluation in Step 1.
Step 3: Write the equivalent sum term for each binary
number from Step 2 and express in POS form.
Summary
Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS
Convert the following SOP expression to an
equivalent POS expression:
ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
The evaluation is as follows:

000 + 010 + 011 + 101 + 111
Since there are three variables in the domain of this expression.
There are a total of eight (23) possible combinations.
The SOP expression contains five of these combinations,
 The POS must contain the other three, i.e.,
 001, 100, and 110.
Summary
Converting SOP Expressions to Truth Table Format
Develop a truth table for the standard SOP expression
A BC + AB C + ABC
A B C OUTPUT PRODUCT TERM
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 ABC
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 ABC
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 ABC
Summary
Converting POS Expressions to Truth Table Format
Develop a truth table for the standard POS expression
(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C )
A B C OUTPUT SUM TERM

0 0 0 0 (A+B+C)
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 (A + B + C
0 1 1 0 (A+B+C)
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 (A+B+C)
1 1 0 0 (A+B+C)
1 1 1 1
Summary
Converting a Truth Table to an SOP/POS Expression
Q. How can you determine an SOP/POS

expression from a Truth Table?
Ans. ?
Summary
Karnaugh maps
The Karnaugh map (K-map) is a tool for simplifying
combinational logic with 3 or 4 variables. For 3 variables,
8 cells are required (23).
The map shown is for three variables
labeled A, B, and C. Each cell ABC ABC
represents one possible product term.
ABC ABC
Each cell differs from an adjacent
cell by only one variable. ABC ABC
ABC ABC
Summary
Karnaugh maps
Cells are usually labeled using 0’s and 1’s to represent the
variable and its complement.
C The numbers are entered in gray
AB 0 1
code, to force adjacent cells to be
00 different by only one variable.
Gray 01 Ones are read as the true variable

code and zeros are read as the
11
complemented variable.
10 1  true variable
0  complement variable
Summary
Karnaugh maps
Alternatively, cells can be labeled with the variable

letters. This makes it simple to read, but it takes more
time preparing the map.
CC CC
Read the terms for the AB ABC
AB ABC
yellow cells.
AB ABC
AB ABC ABC
The cells are ABC and ABC. AB ABC

AB ABC
AB ABC
AB ABC
ABC
Summary
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression
Map the following standard SOP expression on a

Karnaugh map:
C
AB 0 1
00 1
01 1
11 1 1
10
Summary
Karnaugh maps simplification
K-maps can simplify combinational logic by grouping
cells and eliminating variables that change.
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
C 0 1
AB
1 1. Group the 1’s into two overlapping
00
B changes groups as indicated.
across this 01 1 1 2. Read each group by eliminating any
boundary variable that changes across a
11
boundary.
10 C changes
3. The vertical group is read AC.
across this 4. The horizontal group is read AB.
boundary
X = AC +AB
Summary
Karnaugh maps 4-variable map
A 4-variable map has an adjacent cell on each of its four
boundaries as shown.
Each cell is different only by
CD CD CD CD
one variable from an adjacent
AB
cell.
AB Grouping follows the rules
AB
given in the text.
The following slide shows an
AB
example of reading a four
variable map using binary
numbers for the variables…
Summary
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression
Map the following standard SOP expression on a
Karnaugh map:
1 1
1
1 1 1
1
Summary
Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression
Map the following SOP expression on a Karnaugh
map:
C
AB 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 1
11 1
10 1 1
Summary
Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression
Map the following SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
Summary
Karnaugh maps simplification 4-variable map
Summary
C changes across
outer boundary
CD
AB
00 01 11 10 1. Group the 1’s into two separate
00 1 1 groups as indicated.
B changes 2. Read each group by eliminating
01 1 1 any variable that changes across a
11 boundary.
1 1
B changes 3. The upper (yellow) group is read as
10 1 1 AD.
4. The lower (green) group is read as
C changes
AD.
X
X = AD +AD
Summary
1. Group the 1’s into two separate

1 1 groups as indicated.
2. Read each group by
1 1 1 1 eliminating any variable that
changes across a boundary.
1 1 1 1
1 X = B+ AC +ACD
X
Summary
Use a Karnaugh map to minimize following SOP
expression:
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 X = D+BC
X
Summary
AC + AB + ABD
Summary
"Don't Care" Conditions
• Sometimes a situation arises in which some input variable
combinations are not allowed.
• E.g, in BCD there are six invalid combinations: 1010, 1011,
1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111.
• Since these unallowed states will never occur in an application
involving the BCD code, they can be treated as "don't care"
terms with respect to their effect on the output.
•  For any of the "don't care" terms either a 1 or a 0 may be
assigned to the output:
• The "don't care" terms can be used to advantage on the
Karnaugh map.
Summary
"Don't Care" Conditions
Ignoring""don't cares" Y = ABC + ABCD
With ""don't cares" Y = A + BCD
X X X X
1 1 X X
Summary
Mapping a Standard POS Expression
• For a POS expression in standard form, a 0 is placed

on the Karnaugh map for each sum term in the
expression.
• Step 1: Determine the binary value of each sum term
in the standard POS expression.
– This is the binary value that makes the term equal to 0.
• Step 2: As each sum term is evaluated, place a 0 on
the Karnaugh map in the corresponding cell.
Summary
Map the following POS expression on a Karnaugh map:
(A + B + C)(A + B + C)(A + B + C) (A + B + C )
000 010 110 101
C
AB 0 1
00 0
01 0
11 0
10 0
Summary
Map the following POS expression on a Karnaugh map:
1100 1011 0010 1111 0011
0 0
0 0
Summary
Use a Karnaugh map to minimize following POS exp.
(0 + 0 + 0) (0 + 0 + 1) (0 + 1 + 0) (0 + 1 + 1) (1 + 1 + 0)
C
AB 0 1
00 0 0 A(B + C)
01 0 0 = AB+AC
11 0 1
10 1 1
X
Summary
Use a Karnaugh map to minimize following POS exp.
(0 + 0 + 1 + 0) (1 + 0 + 0 + 1) (0 + 1 + 0 + 0) (1 + 1 + 0 + 0)
( )( )
(1 + 0 + 0 + 0)(0 + 0 + 0 + 0)
0 0
(C + D) (A + B + D) (A + B + C) 0
0 0
Summary
Converting Between POS and SOP Using the Karnaugh Map
Using a Karnaugh map, convert the following standard POS
expression into a (a) minimum POS expression, (b) a standard
SOP expression, and (c) a minimum SOP expression.
0 0 0 (a) Minimum POS expression
0
0
Summary
0 0 0 (b) Standard SOP expression
0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
Summary
1 0 0 0 (c) Minimum SOP expression
0 1 1 1
BD BC
0 1 1 1
BCD 1 0 1 1 AC

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Digital

© 2009 Pearson Education,©Upper

In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to represent

Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1.

In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the AND

What are the values of the A, B and C if the

The commutative laws are applied to addition and

For multiplication, the commutative law states

The associative laws are also applied to addition and

For multiplication, the associative law states

The distributive law is the factoring law. A common

Rules of Boolean algebra can be illustrated with Venn

The diagram visually shows that A + AB = A. Other rules can be

This time, A is represented by the blue area and B

This rule is a little more complicated, but it can also be

The overlapping area between B and C represents BC.

DeMorgan’s 1st Theorem

DeMorgan’s 2nd Theorem

Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to remove the

To apply DeMorgan’s theorem to the expression,

Combinational logic circuits can be analyzed by writing

Write the expression for each gate:

Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-products

In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must

Convert X = A B + A B C to standard form.

An SOP expression is equal to 1 only if one or more

Click the truth table to logic

See next slide…

In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must

Convert X = (A + B)(A + B + C) to standard form.

The first sum term does not include the variable C.

A POS expression is equal to 0 only if one or more

The evaluation is as follows:

A B C OUTPUT SUM TERM

Q. How can you determine an SOP/POS

Gray 01 Ones are read as the true variable

Alternatively, cells can be labeled with the variable

The cells are ABC and ABC. AB ABC

Map the following standard SOP expression on a

1. Group the 1’s into two separate

• For a POS expression in standard form, a 0 is placed

1100 1011 0010 1111 0011

0 0 0 (a) Minimum POS expression

0 0 0 (b) Standard SOP expression

1 0 0 0 (c) Minimum SOP expression

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