LEC – 4

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Department of Electrical Engineering
 The P-v Diagram
The general shape of the P-v diagram of a pure substance is very much like
the T-v diagram, but the T constant lines on this diagram have a downward
trend, as shown in Fig. 3–19.

Vaporization - change of phase from liquid to vapor

Condensation - change of phase from vapor to liquid
 The P-v Diagram
When a liquid is heated at any one constant pressure there is one fixed temperature at which
bubbles of vapour form in the liquid; this phenomenon is known as boiling.

The higher the pressure of the liquid then the higher the temperature at which boiling occurs.

It is also found that the volume occupied by 1 kg of a boiling liquid at a high pressure is slightly
larger than the volume occupied by 1 kg of the same liquid when it is boiling at a low pressure.

A series of boiling-points plotted on a p-v diagram will appear as a sloping line as shown in the
figure.

The points P, Q and R represent the boiling-points of a liquid at pressure p ,p

P Q and p
R

respectively.
When a liquid at boiling-point is heated further at constant pressure the additional
heat supplied changes the phase of the substance from liquid to vapour; during this
change of phase the pressure and temperature remain constant.

The heat supplied is called the specific enthalpy of vapourization.

It is found that the higher the pressure then the smaller is the amount of heat
required.

There is a definite value of specific volume of the vapour at any one pressure at the
point at which vapourization is complete; hence a series of points such P΄, Q΄, R΄ can
be plotted and joined to form a line as shown in figure.
When the two curves already drawn are extended to high pressure they form a continuous curve, thus forming
a loop as shown in the figure.

The pressure at which the turning point occurs is called the critical point (Point C).
It can be seen that at the critical point the specific enthalpy of vaporization is zero.
The substance existing at a state point inside the loop consists of a mixture of liquid and dry vapour and is
known as wet vapour.

A saturation state is defined as a state at which a change of phase may occur without change of pressure or
temperature.

Hence the boiling-points P,Q and R are saturation states and a series of such boiling-points P,Q and R joined up
is called the saturated liquid line.

Similarly the points P ∕,Q ∕ and R ∕ at which liquid is completely change into vapour are saturation states and a
series of such points joined up is called the saturated vapour line.
Line of constant temperature, called isothermals, can be plotted on a p-v diagram as
shown in figure.
The temperature lines become horizontal between the saturated liquid line and the
saturated vapour line.
For example, between P and P΄, Q and Q΄, R and R΄.
Thus there is a corresponding saturation temperature for each saturation pressure.
At pressurepP, the saturation temperature is T1, at pressurepQ the saturation
temperature is T2and at pressurepR the saturation temperature is T3.
The critical temperature line Tc just touches the top of the loop at the critical point C.
When a dry saturated vapour is heated at constant pressure its temperature rises and
it becomes superheated.
The difference between the actual temperature of the superheated vapour and the
saturation temperature at the pressure of the vapour is called degree of superheat.
Enthalpy—A Combination Property

Specific enthalpy (h) is defined as h = u + Pv,

where u is the specific internal energy of the system being studied,
P is the pressure of the system, and
v is the specific volume of the system.

Enthalpy is usually used in connection with an "open" system

Problem in thermodynamics.
 Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States

The subscript f is used to denote properties of a saturated liquid, and the

subscript g to denote the properties of saturated vapor.

Another subscript commonly used is fg, which denotes the difference

between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid values of the same
property.

For example,
 Enthalpy of vaporization
The quantity hfg is called the enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat of vaporization).
It represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of saturated liquid at a given
temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or pressure increases and becomes zero at
the critical point.
The change in specific enthalpy from hf to hg is given the symbol hfg. When saturated water is
changed to dry saturated vapour
Q = ∆U + W
Q = (ug - uf) + W
Where W represents area underthe horizontal line on p-v diagram.
W = p (vg – vf )

Q = (ug - uf) + p (vg – vf )

Q = (ug - uf) + pvg – pvf
Q = (ug + pvg ) –(uf + pvf )
Q = hg – hf
Q = hfg

The heat required to change a saturated liquid to a dry

Saturated vapour is called the specific enthalpyof vapourization, hfg.
 Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture

During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and part

vapor.That is, it is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor.
To analyze this mixture properly, we need to know the proportions
of the liquid and vapor phases in the mixture. This is done by defining
a new property called the (dryness fraction) quality x as the ratio of the
mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture:

Quality (Dryness fraction) has significance for saturated mixtures only.

It has no meaning in the compressed liquid or superheated vapor regions.
Its value is between 0 and 1.
The Dryness fraction of a system that consists of saturated liquid is 0 (or 0 percent),
and the Dryness fraction of a system consisting of saturated vapor is 1 (or100 percent).
In saturated mixtures, quality can serve as one of the two independent intensive properties needed to
describe a state.
Note that the properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone or in a mixture with
saturated vapor.
During the vaporization process, only the amount of saturated liquid changes, not its properties. The
same can be said about a saturated vapor.
 Consider a tank that contains a saturated liquid–vapor mixture.
The volume occupied by saturated liquid is Vf,
and the volume occupied by saturated vapor is Vg.
The total volume V is the sum of the two:

The analysis given above can be repeated for internal energy

and enthalpy with the following results:
Property Tables
•If you have 2 properties, you can find the others using the
thermodynamic property tables.

•E.g. If you have pressure and temperature for steam, you can
find it’s specific volume, enthalpy, internal energy, and entropy.

•There are separate property tables for saturated mixtures, sub

cooled liquids, superheated vapors, and ideal gases.
Saturated Property Tables
•Between a liquid and a vapor – contains both.
•Quality (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) determines properties.
•A quality of 0 is a saturated liquid.
•A quality of 1 is a saturated vapor.
•If given a temperature and a pressure, the quality is needed to determine its other
properties.

•To determine whether or not a substance is a saturated mixture from the pressure and
temperature, look at the pressure charts.
•If the temperature of the actual substance is higher than the saturated temperature,
it’s a superheated vapor.
•If it’s lower, it’s a sub cooled liquid.
•If the two temperatures are equal, it is a saturated mixture.
INTERPOLATION