MODULE – I

COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION

MODULE 1: Comparative physiology of digestion:

1. Introduction

2. Principle of digestion

3. Digestive juices – composition, phases of secretion, regulations and functions

4. Absorption of digestive nutrients

5. Egestion of undigested food

6. Role of gut micro flora in digestion

7. Movements of GI tract – control and functions and reflexes.

 https://www.slideshare.net/nirmalajosephine1
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/d
http://slideplayer.com/slide/6224554/
rraghu74-1526731-control-gastric-secretions/
/biology-form-4-chapter-6-nutrition-part-2

https://www.slideshare.net/nirmalajosephine1
/biology-form-4-chapter-6-nutrition-part-2
https://www.slideshare.net/enamifat/introduc
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/d
http://www.dnatube.com/video/6151/The-
tion-to-digestion-and-absorption-local-
http://slideplayer.com/slide/3383047/
rraghu74-1526731-control-gastric-secretions/
Digestive-System
hormones-of-git-different-digestive-juices
 The human intestine contains a large variety of microorganisms, this community
consists of at least 1014 bacterial cells and up to 500–1000 different species.

 As a whole this represents overall more than 100 times the human genome, and
is called the ‘‘metagenome’’. Thus, the intestinal flora can be considered as
an ‘‘exteriorized organ’’ which contributes to our homeostasis with multiple
functions largely diversified.

 The biological functions controlled by the intestinal flora are related to the
effectiveness of energy harvest, by the bacteria, of the energy ingested but not
digested by the host.

 Among the dietary compound escaping to the digestion occurring in the upper
part of the human gastro intestinal tract, the polysaccharides constitute the
major source of nutrient for the bacteria.

 Part of these polysaccharides could be transformed into digestible substances

such as sugars, or short chain carboxylic acids, providing energy substrates
which can be used by the bacteria or the host.
The animal/human gut is the natural habitat for a large and dynamic
bacterial community and the relevance and effect of resident bacteria
on a host’s physiology and pathology has been well documented.

Major functions of the gut microflora include metabolic activities that

result :

1. in salvage of energy and absorbable nutrients,

2. important trophic effects on intestinal epithelia and on immune

structure and function, and

3. protection of the colonised host against invasion by alien microbes.

Gut flora might also be an essential factor in certain pathological

disorders, including multisystem organ failure, colon cancer, and
inflammatory bowel diseases. Nevertheless, bacteria are also useful
in promotion of human health. Probiotics and prebiotics are known
to have a role in prevention or treatment of some diseases.
http://www.beeculture.com/honey-bee-gut-microbia/
http://thepowerofpoop.com/about/about-fecal-transplant/
 The gut flora controls pathogens, regulates immunity, regulates inflammation, synthesizes
vitamins, synthesizes enzymes, increases mineral bioavailability, synthesizes
neurotransmitters, regulates hormones metabolism, regulates blood sugar, regulates
appetite, and contributes to liver health.

 A healthy intestinal flora provides a barrier between the epithelial cells of the colon and
pathogenic bacteria, known as colonization resistance. In other words, these probiotics
colonize the entire colon wall effectively reducing space for pathogenic bacteria to take hold
or even break through the intestinal wall.

 These bacteria also synthesize certain vitamins, like B7, biotin, B12, folic acid and vitamin K.
In addition, the gut flora produces enzymes that are secreted into the epithelial cells of the
colon, allowing various bodily functions to take place.

 The healthy bacteria within the intestines also create molecules for the brain, otherwise
known as metabolites. This contributes to healthy brain function, as healthy bacteria have an
effect on neurological function.

 The intestinal flora receives its nutrients from mucin, a glycoprotein that is excreted by the
mucous membranes.

 Bacteria also ferment indigestible carbohydrates, otherwise known as dietary fiber, like
pectin, cellulose and hemicellulose into short chain fatty acids. These fatty acids are a great
source of energy for the body and contribute to healthy epithelial cell proliferation.

 Bacterial – Brain Connection: The gut flora also makes neurotransmitters like serotonin and
dopamine. It can therefore communicate with the brain and controls a large number of
processes within its realm. The gut has been considered the second brain, as it has more
neuron cells than the spinal cord. With that said, the next time you have a “gut feeling”, go
with it.
http://thescienceofeating.com/2017/06/28/gut-flora-holds-key-good-health-heres-keeps-
whole-body-healthy/
https://drjockers.com/6-steps-to-rebuild-gut-
flora-metabolism/
https://www.integrativepsychiatry.net/gut_bra
in_dysfunction.html
Metabolic functions

 A major metabolic function of colonic microflora is the fermentation of non-digestible dietary

residue and endogenous mucus produced by the epithelia.
 Fermentation of carbohydrates is a major source of energy in the colon. Non-digestible
carbohydrates include large polysaccharides (resistant starches, cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectins, and gums), some oligosaccharides that escape digestion, and unabsorbed sugars and
alcohols. The metabolic endpoint is generation of short-chain fatty acids.

 Colonic microoganisms also play a part in vitamin synthesis and in absorption of calcium,
magnesium, and iron.

 Absorption of ions in the caecum is improved by carbohydrate fermentation and production of

short-chain fatty acids, especially acetate, propionate, and butyrate. All of these fatty acids
have important functions in host physiology.

 Butyrate is almost completely consumed by the colonic epithelium, and it is a major source of
energy for colonocytes.

 Acetate and propionate are found in portal blood and are eventually metabolised by the liver
(propionate) or peripheral tissues, particularly muscle (acetate).

 Acetate and propionate might also have a role as modulators of glucose metabolism:
absorption of these short-chain fatty acids would result in lower glycaemic responses to oral
glucose or standard meal—a response consistent with an ameliorated sensitivity to insulin.
 In fact, foods with high proportion of non-digestible carbohydrates all have a low glycaemic
index. However, results of one study showed no effect of colonic fermentation of
carbohydrates on insulin resistance.
Trophic functions

 Epithelial cell growth and differentiation—intraluminal bacteria affect cell proliferation in

the colon. Differentiation of epithelial cells is greatly affected by interaction with resident
microorganisms.

 All three major short-chain fatty acids stimulate epithelial cell proliferation and
differentiation.

 However, butyrate inhibits cell proliferation and stimulates cell differentiation in epithelial
cell

 Moreover, butyrate promotes reversion of cells from neoplastic to non-neoplastic

phenotypes.
Interactions between gut bacteria and host immunity—

 The intestinal mucosa is the main interface between the immune system and the
external environment. Thus, that gut-associated lymphoid tissues contain the largest
pool of immunocompetent cells in the human body is not surprising.

 The dialogue between host and bacteria at the mucosal interface seems to play a
part in development of a competent immune system.

 Many and diverse interactions between microbes, epithelium and gut-associated

lymphoid tissue are involved in modelling the memory mechanisms of systemic
immunity.

Protective functions: the barrier effect

 Resident bacteria are a crucial line of resistance to colonisation by exogenous

microbes and, therefore, are highly relevant in prevention of invasion of tissues by
pathogens
https://phys.org/news/2016-03-gut-
microbiome-remarkably-stable.html
https://phys.org/news/2016-03-gut-
microbiome-remarkably-stable.html
 http://www.uofmhealth.org/news/archive/201611/high-fiber-diet-keeps-gut-microbes-
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http://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/bacteria-celiac-patients-influence-glutens-
digestion-ability-provoke-immune-response/

http://schaechter.asmblog.org/schaechter/2013/06/fine-reading-the-gut-microbiota-of-insects-
diversity-in-structure-and-function.html

https://phys.org/news/2016-03-gut-microbiome-remarkably-stable.html