.

DR RAKESH NALLAM
• X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen (1895)
• He named those rays as x rays --x as a symbol of
the unknown

• X rays are produced by energy conversion when a

fast moving stream of electrons is suddenly
decelerated in the target anode of an x ray tube.
X-ray tube is made
of Pyrex glass that
encloses a vacuum
containing two
electrodes - anode
and cathode.
• It is necessary to seal the two electrodes of the x
ray tube in vacuum because if gas were present
inside the tube the electrons that were being
accelerated toward the anode target would
collide with the gas molecules, lose energy and
cause secondary electrons to be ejected from the
gas molecules.
• So the presence of secondary electrons would
result in variation in the number and in the
reduced speed of electrons impinging on the
target.
• So the purpose of vacuum in the modern x ray
tube is to allow the number and speed of
accelerated electrons to be controlled
independently.
• negative electrode
• 3 parts-
1.Filament
2.Connecting wire- supplies voltage (~10 V) & amperage
(~3-5 A)
3.Metallic focussing cup
• Made of Tungsten wire.
• Diameter is about 0.2 mm
• Coiled to form vertical spiral of 0.2
cm in diameter and 1 cm or less in
length.
• Filament is source of electrons.
• High melting point (3370o C).
• Little tendency to vaporize.
• Thin and strong
• Long life expectancy.
• Good absorption and rapid dissipation
of heat
• The forces of mutual repulsion and the large
number of electrons results in bombardment
of large area on anode of the x ray tube.
• This is prevented by a structure called
focussing cup. It is made of nickel.
• Electrical forces of focussing cup cause the
electron beam to converge on to target anode
in required size and shape.
• Contain single filament/ double filaments/
sometimes 3 filaments

DOUBLE FILAMENT ARRANGEMENT:-

• They are placed side by side or one above the
other.
• One filament is large, other one is small.
• Only one filament is used for any fixed x ray
exposure. Larger filament is used for larger
exposure.
 Filament for
small focal spot Filament for large
focal spot
• When a metal is heated its atoms absorb
thermal energy and some of the electrons in
the metal acquire enough energy to allow
them to escape from the surface of the metal
by a process of THERMIONIC EMISSION.
• So it is defined as the emission of electrons
resulting from the absorbtion of thermal
energy.
• The electron cloud surrounding the filament,
produced by thermionic emission has been
termed the EDISON EFFECT.
• Electrons emitted from the tungsten filament
form a small cloud in the immediate vicinty of
the filament. This collection of negatively
charged electrons forms the SPACE CHARGE.
• This cloud of negative charges tends to
prevent other electrons from being emitted
from the filament until they have acquired
sufficient thermal energy to overcome the
force caused by the space charge.
• The tendency of the space charge to limit the
emission of more electrons from the filament
is called as SPACE CHARGE EFFECT.
 High speed electron comes from the filament by the
process of thermionic emission

electron cloud formation(space charge)

leads to space charge effect

there is development of static equilibrium

There is flow of electrons is in one direction only.

Sudden deceleration of the electrons take place by
the target

Production of x rays occur

• It is the principle which is used to decrease
the effective area of focal spot.
• The focal spot is the area of the tungsten
target (anode) that is bombarded by electrons
from the cathode.
• Most of the energy of the electrons is
converted into heat, with less than 1 % being
converted into X rays.
• Because the heat is uniformly distributed over
the focal spot, a large focal spot allows the
accumulation of larger amounts of heat before
damage to tungsten target occurs.
• The problems posed by the need for a large
focal spot to allow greater heat loading and
the conflicting need for a small focal area to
produce good radiographic detail is resolved
by the LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE.
• THE ELECTRON beam bombards the target,
the surface of which is inclined so that it forms
an angle with the plane perpendicular to the
incident beam. This angle is the anode angle.
• The anode angle differs according to the
individual tube design and may vary from 6 to
20 degree.
• Because of this angulation when the slanted
surface of the focal spot is viewed from the
direction in which x rays emerge from the x
ray tube , the surface is foreshortened and
appears small.
• This fore shortening of the focal spot length
as viewed down the central ray is called the
line focus principle
• It is evident therefore that the side of the
effective or apparent focal spot is considerably
smaller than that of actual focal spot.

• f= F sin θ
• where f is apparent focal spot
• F is actual focal spot
• Θ is the anode angle.
• Thus as the angle of the anode is made
smaller the apparent focal spot also becomes
smaller.
• positive electrode
• Made up of Tungsten
• Alloy of Tungsten preferred
 90% Tungsten + 10% Rhenium
 More resistant to surface roughening and pitting
 Higher thermal capacity

• 2 types-
1. Stationary
2. Rotating
• It consists of a small plate of tungsten, 2-3 mm
thick that is embedded in a large mass of copper.
• The anode angle is usually 15 – 20 degrees.
• The small tungsten is embedded /bonded to the
much larger copper portion of the anode to
facilitate heat dissipation.
• Copper is a better conductor of heat than
tungsten, so the massive copper anode acts to
increase the total thermal capacity of the anode
and so speeds its rate of cooling.
• Large disc of tungsten/ alloy of tungsten
• Beveled edge
• Carbon coating
• Stem
• Rotor
• Stator coils
• Lubricants(silver)
• Purpose Of Rotating Anode is to spread
the heat produced during an exposure
over a large area of anode
• If the target is made to rotate at a
speed of 3600 rpm, however , the
electrons will bombard a constantly
changing area of the target.
• The power to effect rotation is provided by a
magnetic field produced by stator coils that
surround the neck of the x ray tube outside
the envelope.

• The magnetic field produced by the stator

coils induces a current in the copper rotor of
the induction motor and this induced current
provides the power to rotate the anode
assembly.
• Heat generated in a solid tungsten disc is
dissipated by radiating through the vacuum to
the wall of the tube and then into the
surrounding oil and tube housing.
• ( in stationary anode heat is dissipated by
absorption and conductivity is provided by the
massive copper anode.)
• But in the rotating anode tube, absorption of
heat by the anode assembly is undesirable
because heat absorbed by the bearings of the
anode assembly would cause them to expand
and bind.
• Because of this problem the stem which
connects the tungsten target to the remainder
of the anode assembly is made of
molybdenum.

• Mo has high melting point (2600deg C) and is

a poor conductor of heat.

• Thus the Mo stem provides a partial heat

barrier between the tungsten disc and the
bearings of the anode assembly.
• If the speed of the rotation is increased,the ability
of the anode to withstand heat will become
greater.
• Three modifications to increase velocity:

1. Length of the anode stem to be made short

2. Bearings to be placed as far apart as possible
3. Inertia of the anode is reduced by decreasing the
weight of the anode.
• The intensity of the X ray beam that leaves the
X ray tube is not uniform through out all the
portions of the beam.

• Rather it depends on the angle at which the X

rays are emitted from the focal spot. This
variation is termed as HEEL EFFECT. ( variation
in the intensity of the X ray beam after it
leaves the x ray tube).
• The above fig shows that the intensity of the
beam towards the anode side of the tube is
less than that which angles toward the
cathode.
• The decreased intensity of the X ray beam that
is emitted more nearly parallel to the surface
of the angled target is caused by absorption of
some of the X ray photons by the target itself.
• This is used to advantage when imaging
anatomical parts that are unequal in thickness
and densities throughout their respective
lengths. Eg thoracic vertebrae , humerus,
femur, tibia, fibula etc.

• The thicker portion of the anatomical part is

placed beneath the cathode end of the x ray
tube.
• Three clinically important aspects of the heel
effect are----
• 1) The intensity of film exposure on the anode
side of the X ray tube is significantly less than
that on the cathode side of the tube.
• 2) the heel effect is less noticeable when
larger focus film distances are used.
• 3) For equal target film distances , the heel
effect will be less for smaller films.
• This is because the intensity of X ray beam
nearest the central ray is more uniform than
that toward the periphery of the beam.
• X ray tube is always mounted inside a lead
lined protective housing that is designed to
-Prevent excessive radiation exposure
-Prevent electric shock to the patient and
operator.
• Contains oil in which the tube is bathed.
 LEAKAGE RADIATION
HOUSING
• Has metal encasing
and 3 ceramic
insulators – high
voltage cables and
anode stem

• Anodes up to 2000 g
can be supported
(conventional tubes –
700g)
• Made of aluminum oxide. They
insulate high voltage parts of x-ray
tube from metal envelope.
• The use of insulators allows a more
compact tube design.
• Less off focus radiation.

• Longer tube life with high tube currents.

• Higher tube loading.

 It is due to electron
back scatter from
anode interacting
with metal other than
the focal track and
striking anode a
second time to
produce X-rays.

The metal
enclosure
USEFUL
decreases of
OFF-FOCUS
focus radiation
by removing
off focus
electrons
1. A source of electrons (cathode)

2. A target to stop the electrons (anode)

3. A method of accelerating the electrons

from the source to the target (PD
maintained across the tube)
1% of the incident energy is converted to X-Rays
the remainder is converted into heat
 CHARACTERISTIC
GENERAL RADIATION RADIATION
• Reaction of electron with • Collision between high speed
nucleus of tungsten atoms, electrons and electrons in the
producing x-rays. shells of target tungsten atoms.
When electron passes near the nucleus of tungsten atom, the +ve charge of the nucleus acts on the –ve
charge of the electron.The electron is attracted towards the nucleus and deflected from its original
direction.The electron will lose some energy and slows down when its direction changes.The kinetic
energy lost by the electron directly in the form of a photon of radiation called general radiation
/ bremsstrahlung.
 Each electron in the target atom has a binding energy that
depends on the shell in which it resides
 Closest to nucleus are two electrons in K shell, which has the
highest binding energy
 When the energy of an electron incident on the target
exceeds the binding energy of an electron of a target atom, it
is energetically possible for a collisional interaction to eject
the electron and ionize the atom
 The unfilled shell is energetically unstable, and an outer shell
electron with less binding energy will fill the vacancy
 As this electron transitions to a lower energy state, the excess
energy can be released as a characteristic x-ray photon with
an energy equal to the difference between the binding
energies of electron shells
 Generation of a characteristic x-ray in a target
atom occurs in the following sequence:
(1) The incident electron interacts with the K-shell
electron via a repulsive electrical force.
 (2) The K shell electron is removed (only if the
energy of the incident electron is greater than the
K-shell binding energy), leaving a vacancy in the K
shell.
 (3) An electron from the adjacent L shell (or
possibly a different shell) fills the vacancy.
 (4) A K a characteristic x-ray photon is emitted
with an energy equal to the difference between the
binding energies of the two shells.
• Any outer shell electron can fill an inner shell
vacancy,the most likely it is the adjacent shell.
• K shell emissions are highest in energy and are the
only emissions useful to us.
• To get k characteristics we must use at least 70kv(k
shell binding energy of tungsten is 69.5kev).
• The intensity of the xray beam is defined as the number of
photons in the beam multiplied by the energy of each
photon.
• The higher the atomic number of the target atoms,the
greater will be the efficiency of the production of x rays.
• For continuous spectrum , atomic number of the target
material determines quantity of x rays produced.
• For characteristic radiation , atomic number of target material
determines energy or quality of x rays produced.