Unit 1:

Introduction to Thermodynamics
 Unit outline

Macroscopic vs. microscopic viewpoint

Thermodynamic system and control volume
Thermodynamic properties, processes and cycles
Homogeneous and heterogeneous systems
Thermodynamics equilibrium
Quasi-static process
Pure substance
Concept of continuum
Thermostatic
Units and dimensions
Introduction to “Thermodynamics”

 Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals

with the relationships between heat, pressure, work,
and energy.
Macroscopic vs. microscopic
viewpoint
 Macroscopic vs. microscopic
viewpoint (cont.)
Macroscopic (classical
thermodynamics)
 Based on the study of overall
behaviour of a number of
molecules
 Can be perceived by human
senses
 The values of the properties of
system are their average values.
For example consider a sample
of a gas in a closed container .
The pressure of the gas is the
average value of the pressure
exerted by millions of individual
molecules .
Microscopic (statistical
thermodynamics)
 Based on the study of
behaviour of the individuals
molecules
 Cannot be perceived by human
senses
 The properties like velocity ,
momentum , impulse , kinetic
energy , force of impact etc ,
which describe the molecule
cannot be easily measured by
instruments . Our senses
cannot feel them .
 Thermodynamic systems

 A thermodynamic system –
Quantity of matter or region
in space chosen for study
 Mass or region outside the
system is called the
surroundings
 Surroundings may be
affected by changes within
the system
 The boundary is the surface
of separation between the
system and its surroundings
Thermodynamic systems

Control mass Control volume

system system
 Thermodynamic system
(control mass and control volume)

Open system in boiler

Only energy
flow, no mass
flow

Control mass Control volume

system system
Thermodynamic properties, process
and cycles

Properties •Observable characteristics of system which can be

used for defining it

State •Indicates the specific condition of a system

Process •The mode in which the change of state of a system

takes place is termed as process

Cycles •Typical sequence of processes in such a fashion

that the initial and final states are identical
Homogeneous and heterogeneous
systems

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
systems systems

A system which A system which

consists of a single consists of two or
phase more phases
• Eg: Mixture of air and • Eg: Ice in a glass of
water vapour water
 Thermodynamic equilibrium

EQUILIBRIUM A state of balance

No unbalanced potentials or driving forces within the system

THERMAL If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system

EQUILIBRIUM

MECHANICAL If there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with

EQUILIBRIUM time

CHEMICAL If the chemical composition of a system does not change with

EQUILIBRIUM time, that is, no chemical reaction occur
 Thermodynamic equilibrium

Chemical
equilibrium
Mechanical (Equality of
equilibrium Chemical
(Equality of Potential)
Thermal
equilibrium Forces/Pressure)
(Equality of • Will never be
Temperature) achieved. We only
approximate it.
• It takes infinite time
to achieve final
equilibrium.
 Quasi-static process

A quasi-static process can be viewed

as a sufficiently slow process that
allows the system to adjust itself
internally so that properties in one
part of the system do not change any
faster than those at other parts.
 Quasi-static process

What will happen to the molecules inside the system in both situations?

Which one is associated with quasi-static process?

 Pure substance

A pure substance can

A substance that has a
also be a mixture of
fixed chemical
various chemical
composition throughout
elements or compounds
the system is called a
as long as the mixture is
pure substance.
homogeneous.

A mixture of two or more

phases of a pure
substance is still a pure
substance as long as the
chemical composition of
all phases is the same.
 Pure substance

Air

Water

Air, a mixture of several

compounds, is often
Gases considered to be a pure
substance because it has a
uniform chemical composition
 Pure substance

Mixture of
Mixture of ice Because both Mixture of
liquid and
and liquid phases have the liquid and
gaseous
water same chemical gaseous air
water
composition
 Concept of continuum

 Definition:
 Matter is considered as continuous distribution of mass
by neglecting intermolecular gaps/voids.
 Significance:
 Fluid properties such as density, viscosity, temperature,
thermal conductivity, etc… can be expressed as
continuous function
 Units and dimensions

10 kilometers + 5 feet +
25 yards + 15 inches =_?_

Can you give the answer?

 Units and dimensions (cont.)

Fundamental Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Length meter m
Thermodynamic degree Kelvin K
temperature
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
 Units and dimensions (cont.)
Derived Units
Quantity Unit Symbol Notes
Area meter square m2
Volume meter cube m3 1m3 = 1 x 103 litre
Velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second m/s2
square
Density kilogram per meter kg/m3
cube
Force Newton N 1N = 1kgm/s2
Pressure Newton per meter N/m2 1N/m2 = 1 Pascal
square 1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 102 kN/m2
Force
• Newton’s second law : force α (mass x acceleration)
• F=ma
• 1N= 1kg.m/s2
Energy
• Heat and work are both forms of energy.
• Work done by force is a product of the force and distance moved
in same direction
• Work = force x distance in Nm
• 1 Joule = 1 Newton x 1 meter
• 1J= 1Nm
Power
• Power is the rate of energy transfer (or work done) by or to a
system
• 1 Watt, W = 1J/s = 1 Nm/s
Pressure
• Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
• Pressure on a surface due force from another surface or from a
fluid is the force acting at 900 to the unit area of the surface
• Pressure = force/area
• P=F/A
• N/m2 sometimes called the Pascal, Pa
• 1 bar=105 N/m2 =105 Pa
Pressure in U-tube manometer
𝐹 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
 𝑃=
𝐴
𝑚𝑎
 𝑃= P
𝐴
𝜌𝑉𝑎
 𝑃=
𝐴
h
 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑎
 𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔
Density
• Density is the mass of a substance per unit
volume
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
• 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
•𝜌=
𝑉
• Unit of density is kg/m3
Summary
• 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝐴
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝐿
𝑚
• 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 =
𝑉
Pressure Measuring Device

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

 Units of Pressure

 Atmospheres (symbol=atm)
 Millimeters of mercury (symbol=mm Hg)
 Pascals (symbol=Pa) or, more commonly, kilo Pascals (kPa)

1 atm=760.0 mmHg

1 atm=101.325 kPa

∴ 760mmHg=101.325kPa
 Converting Between Units of
Pressure

Example 1
Convert 0.875 atm to mmHg
𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
0.875 𝑎𝑡𝑚 × 760 = 665𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑎𝑡𝑚

Example 2
Convert 0.955 atm to kPa
𝑘𝑃𝑎
0.955 𝑎𝑡𝑚 × 101.325 = 96.77𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑎𝑡𝑚
 Converting Between Units of
Pressure

Example 3
Convert 740 mmHg to kPa.
101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎
740𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 × = 98.66 kPa
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
 Converting Between Units of
Pressure

 Convert 745 mmHg to atm

745𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 0.98𝑎𝑡𝑚
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔/𝑎𝑡𝑚
 Convert 98.35 kPa to atm
98.35𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 0.97𝑎𝑡𝑚
101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎/𝑎𝑡𝑚
 Convert 99.25 kPa to mmHg
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
99.25𝑘𝑃𝑎 × = 744.4𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎
 Problem 1.1

 A pump discharges a liquid into a drum at the rate of

0.032m3/s. The drum, 1.5m in diameter and 4.2m in
length, can hold 3000kg of the liquid. Find the density
of the liquid and the mass flow rate of the liquid
handled by the pump.
 (Ans: 𝜌 = 404.203𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑚ሶ = 12.9345𝑘𝑔/𝑠
 Problem 1.1 (Solution)

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋×1.52
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚, 𝑉 = ×ℎ = × 4.2 = 7.422𝑚3
𝑑 4
𝑚 3000
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 = = = 4040.203𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉 7.422
𝑚 𝑚ሶ
Density, 𝜌 = =
𝑉 𝑉ሶ

𝑚ሶ = 𝑉ሶ × 𝜌 = 0.032 × 404.203 = 12.9345𝑘𝑔/𝑠

 Problem 1.2

 A 30m high vertical column of a fluid of density

1878kg/m3 exists in a place where g=9.65m/s2.
What is the pressure at the base of the column?
 (Ans: P=544kPa)
 Problem 1.2 (solution)

h=30m
𝑘𝑔
𝜌= 1878 3
𝑚
g=9.65 m/s2
P=ℎ𝜌𝑔
=30 × 1878 × 9.65
=543681 Pa
=543.681 kPa
 Problem 1.3

 A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads

0.66mHg. What is the absolute pressure in the
condenser in kPa when the atmospheric pressure is
101.3kPa? [760mmHg=101.325kPa]

 Hint: 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

 Problem 1.3 (solution)

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

101.325
= 101.3 − 0.66 × 1000 ×
760
= 13.3𝑘𝑃𝑎
 Problem 1.4

 Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa,

assuming that the barometer reads 760mmHg.
 90cmHg gauge
 40cmHg vacuum
 1.2𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 gauge
 3.1 bar Hint:
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
 Problem 1.4 (solution)

 90cmHg gauge to kPa

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 90cm Hg × 10 + 760𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 ×
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
101.325
= 1660𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 ×
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 221𝑘𝑃𝑎
 Problem 1.4 (solution)

 40cmHg vacuum to kPa

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎
= (760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 − 40𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 × 10) ×
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 360𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 ×
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 47.9𝑘𝑃𝑎
 Problem 1.4 (solution)

 1.2𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 gauge to kPa

𝑃𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
1000𝑘𝑔 9.81m
= 1.2𝑚 × ×
𝑚3 s2
= 11772 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 11.772 𝑘𝑃𝑎

101.325𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 11.772 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 113.097 𝑘𝑃𝑎
 Problem 1.4 (solution)

 3.1 bar to kPa

1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa

∴ 3.1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 100 = 310 𝑘𝑃𝑎