• Introduction:

– Definition
– Principles
– Classification
– Application
– Advantages & limitations of welding.
• Arc Welding:
– Principle
– Metal Arc welding (MAW)
– Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW)
– Inert Gas Welding (TIG & MIG)
– Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
– Atomic Hydrogen Welding processes. (AHW)
• Gas Welding:
– Principle
– Oxy – Acetylene welding
– Reaction in Gas welding
– Flame characteristics
– Gas torch construction & working
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– Forward and backward welding.
INTRODUCTION
• Welding is a process for joining different materials.
• The large bulk of materials that are welded are metals and their alloys,
although the term welding is also applied to the joining of other materials such
as thermo plastics.
• Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of processes in
which heat is supplied either electrically or by means of a gas torch.
• In order to join two or more pieces of metals together by one of the welding
processes, the most essential requirement is Heat. Pressure may also be
employed.
• Since a slight gap usually exists between the edges of the work pieces, a 'filler
metal’ is used to supply additional material to fill the gap. But, welding can also
be carried out without the use of filler metal.
• The filler metal is melted in the gap, combines with the molten metal of the
work piece and upon solidification forms an integral part of the weld.

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• Welding terminology

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PRINCIPLE OF WELDING
• An ideal joint between two pieces of metal or plastic can be made by heating
the workpieces to a suitable temperature. In other words, on heating, the
materials soften sufficiently so that the surfaces fuse together.
• The bonding force holds the atoms, ions or molecules together in a solid. This
'bonding on contact' is achieved only when:
– the contaminated surface layers on the workpiece are removed,
– recontamination is avoided, and
– the two surfaces are made smooth, flat and fit each other exactly.
• In highly deformable materials, the above aims can be achieved by rapidly
forcing the two surfaces of the workpiece to come closer together so that
plastic deformation makes their shape conform to each another; at the same
time, the surface layers are broken up, allowing the intimate contact needed to
fuse the materials.
• This was the principle of the first way known to weld metals; by hammering the
pieces together while they are in hot condition.

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CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
• There are about 35 different welding and brazing processes and several
soldering methods in use by industry today.
• There are various ways of classifying the welding and allied processes. For
example, they may be classified on the basis of:
– Source of heat, i.e., flame, arc, etc
– Type of interaction i.e. liquid/liquid (fusion welding) or solid/solid (solid state
welding).
• In general, various welding and allied processes are classified as follows:

1. Gas Welding
 Air Acetylene Welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding
 Oxy hydrogen Welding
 Pressure gas Welding

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2. Arc Welding
 Carbon Arc Welding
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 TIG (or GTAW) Welding
 MIG (or GMAW) Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding
 Electro slag Welding
 Electro gas Welding
 Stud Arc Welding.
3. Resistance Welding
 Spot Welding
 Seam Welding
 Projection Welding
 Resistance Butt Welding
 Flash Butt Welding
 Percussion Welding
 High Frequency Resistance
Welding.
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4. Solid State Welding
 Cold Welding
 Diffusion Welding
 Explosive Welding
 Forge Welding
 Friction Welding
 Hot Pressure Welding
 Roll Welding
 Ultrasonic Welding.
5. Thermo-Chemical Welding Processes
 Thermit Welding
 Atomic Hydrogen Welding.
6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes
 Electron Beam Welding
 Laser Beam Welding.
7
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
• A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
• General welding equipment is not very costly.
• Portable welding equipments are available.
• Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
• A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by
welding.
• Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure tight seams,
end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
• Welding can be mechanized.
DISADVANTAGES 0F WELDING
• Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
• Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces.
• Edge preparation of the workpieces is generally required before welding them.
• A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job.
• Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the welded joint
is not same as that of the parent metal.
• A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat-treatment.
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PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF WELDING
• Welding has been employed in Industry as a tool for:
– Regular fabrication of automobile cars, air-crafts, refrigerators, etc.
– Repair and maintenance work, e.g., joining broken parts, rebuilding worn out
components, etc.
• A few important applications of welding are listed below:
1. Aircraft Construction
• Welded engine mounts.
• Turbine frame for jet engine.
• Rocket motor fuel and oxidizer tanks.
• Ducts, fittings, cowling components, etc.
2. Automobile Construction
• Arc welded car wheels
• Steel rear axle housing.
• Frame side rails.
• Automobile frame, brackets, etc.

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3. Bridges
• Section lengths.
• Shop and field assembly of lengths, etc.
4. Buildings
• Column base plates
• Trusses
• formation of structure, etc.
5. Pressure Vessels and Tanks
• Clad and lined steel plates
• Shell construction
• Joining of nozzles to the shell, etc.
6. Storage Tanks
• Oil, gas and water storage tanks.
7. Rail Road Equipment Locomotive
• Under frame
• Air receiver
• Engine
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8. Pipings and Pipelines
• Rolled plate piping
• Open pipe joints,
• Oil gas and gasoline pipe lines, etc.
9. Ships
• Shell frames.
• Deck beams and bulkhead stiffeners.
• Girders to shells
• Bulkhead webs to plating, etc.
10. Trucks and trailers.
11. Machine tool frames, cutting tools and dies.
12. Household and office furniture.
13. Earth moving machinery and cranes.
In addition, arc welding finds following applications in repair and maintenance
work:
14. Repair of broken and damaged components and machinery such as tools,
punches, dies, gears, shears, press and machine tools frames.
15. Hard-facing and rebuilding of worn out or undersized (costly) parts rejected
during inspection.
16. Fabrication of jigs, fixtures, clamps and other work holding devices.

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ARC WELDING PROCESS
• Arc welding process is fusion method of welding that utilizes the high intensity
of the arc generated by the flow of current to melt the workpieces.
• A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.

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PRINCIPLE
• The source of heat for arc welding process is an 'electric arc' generated between
two electrically conducting materials.
• One of the workpiece material called 'electrode' is connected to one pole of the
electric circuit, while the other workpiece which forms the second conducting
material is connected to the other pole of the circuit.
• When the tip of the electrode material is brought in contact with the workpiece
material and momentarily separated by small distance of 2-4 mm, an arc can be
generated.
• The electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
• The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the workpieces.
• Coalescence takes place where the molten metal of the one workpiece
combines with the molten metal of the other workpiece.
• When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two workpieces join together to form a
single component.
• The electrode material can be either a non-consumable material or a
Consumable material.
• The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite etc., serve only to
strike the arc and is not consumed during the welding process.
• Whereas, the consumable electrode which is made of the same material as that
of the workpiece metal helps to strike the arc and at the same time melt (gets
consumed) and combines with the molten metal of the workpiece to form a
weld.
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1. METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW)
• In metallic arc welding an arc is established between work and the filler
metal electrode.
• The intense heat of the arc forms a molten pool in the metal being welded,
and at the same time melts the tip of the electrode.
• As the arc is maintained, molten filler metal from the electrode tip is
transferred across the arc, where it fuses with the molten base metal.
• Arc may be formed with direct or alternating current.
• Petrol or diesel driven generators are widely used for welding in open, where
a normal electricity supply may not be available.

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METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW) ( continued…….)
• A simple transformer however widely employed for A.C. arc welding.
• The transformer sets are cheaper and simple having no maintenance cost as
there are no moving parts.
• With AC system, the covered or coated electrodes are used, whereas with D.C.
system for cast iron and non-ferrous metals, bare electrodes can be used.
• In order to strike the arc an open circuit voltage of between 60 to 70 volts is
required.
• For maintaining the short arc 17 to 25 volts are necessary.
• The current required for welding, however, varies from 10 amp. to 500 amp.
depending upon the class of work to be welded.

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2. CARBON ARC WELDING
• Here the work is connected to negative and the carbon rod or electrode
connected to the positive of the electric circuit.
• Arc is formed in the gap, filling metal is supplied by fusing a rod or wire into the
arc by allowing the current to jump over it and it produces a porous and brittle
weld because of inclusion of carbon particles in the molten metal.
• The voltage required for striking an arc with carbon electrodes is about 30 volts
(A.C.) and 40 volts (D.C).
• A disadvantage of carbon arc welding is that approximately twice the current is
required to raise the work to welding temperature as compared with a metal
electrode, while a carbon electrode can only be used economically on D.C. supply.

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3. FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW OR SMAW)
a. Definition:
• It is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the
workpiece with an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the
workpiece.
• The flux covering decomposes due to arc heat and performs many functions, like
arc stability, weld metal protection, etc.,
• The electrode itself melts and supplies the necessary filler metal.

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b. Principle of the process:
• Heat required for welding is obtained from the arc struck between a coated
electrode and the workpiece.
• The arc temperature and thus the arc heat can be increased or decreased by
employing higher or lower arc currents.
• A high current arc with a smaller arc length produces very intense heat.
• The arc melts the electrode end and the job.
• Material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the job, through the
arc, and are deposited along the joint to be welded.
• The flux coating melts, produces a gaseous shield and slag to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.
c. Striking the arc:
In manual metal arc welding (MMAW), arc between the electrode and the
workpiece is generally struck either by momentarily touching the electrode
with the workpiece and taking it (electrode) a predetermined distance away
from the workpiece by the wrist motion or by scratching the electrode on the
job in the arc of a circle.
d. Electrode holder:
• It can hold the electrode at various angles and energizes it at the same time.
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e. Welding the joint
• Once the arc has been established and the arc length adjusted, the electrode is
inclined to an, angle of approximately 20 degrees with the vertical.
• To achieve comparatively deeper penetration, electrode angle with the vertical is
further reduced.
• The electrode is progressed along the joint at a constant speed, it is lowered, at
the same time, at a rate at which it is melting.
f. Welding Equipment:
– AC or DC welding supply, electrode holder and welding cables.
– Welding electrodes.
• AC transformers and DC generators or rectifiers can be employed for welding
with covered electrodes.
• Both AC and DC power sources produce good quality welds, but depending upon
welding situation one may be preferred over the other.
• The most commonly used power source for AC welding is a transformer.
• A transformer may be operated from the mains on single phase, two phases or
three phases.
• A typical specification for the transformer is as follows:
– Current range up to 600 Amps.
– Open circuit voltage 70 to 100 volts.
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Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
• The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
• This process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of a wide
variety of electrodes.
• A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
• Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.
Limitations
• Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on it,
mechanization is difficult.
• In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the
weld is to be progressed with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect
(like slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where
welding is restarted with new electrode.
• The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to MIG
welding.
• Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other
related-defects are more as compared to MIG or TIG welding.
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Applications
• Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded
by this process.
• Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process and for
maintenance and repair jobs.
• The process finds applications in
– Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications;
– Shipbuilding;
– Pipes and Penstock joining;
– Building and Bridge construction;
– Automotive and Aircraft industry, etc.

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 A.C. Welding D.C. Welding
1. At higher currents AC gives a smoother 1. DC arc is more stable.
arc. 2. DC is preferred for welding
2. Once established the arc can be easily certain non-ferrous metals and
maintained and controlled. alloys.
3. It has lower open circuit
3. It is suitable for welding thicker sections. voltage and therefore is safer.
4. AC is easily available. 4. ARC heat can be regulated (i.e.,
5. AC welding power source has no rotating through DCRP and DCSP)
parts. 5. A DC welding equipment is
6. It does not produce noise. a self contained unit. It can be
7. It occupies less space operated in fields where power
supply is not available
8. It is less costly to purchase and maintain. 6. DC welding power source
9. It possesses high efficiency (0.8). is a transformer-rectifier unit
10.It consumes less energy per unit weight of or a DC generator (motor or
deposited metal. engine driven)
11.Melting rate of electrode cannot be
controlled in AC as equal heat generates at
electrode and job.
12.An AC welding power source
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is Transformer
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TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)
• Tungsten inert gas welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a group of
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the
workpiece in the presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• A filler metal may be added if required, during the welding process.
• Figure shows the TIG process.

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Description
• TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a non-consumable
tungsten alloy electrode is held rigidly in the collet.
• The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm.
• TIG welding makes use of a shielding gas like argon or helium to protect
the welding area from atmospheric gases such as oxygen and nitrogen,
otherwise which may cause fusion defects and porosity in the weld metal.
• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the
electrode holder and then impinges on the workpiece.
• Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the pressure and
flow of gas from the cylinder.
• Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current.

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Operation
• The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other
oxides chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
• The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON.
• An arc is struck by touching the tip of the tungsten electrode with the
workpiece and instantaneously the electrode is separated from the
workpiece by a small distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still remains
between the electrode and the workpiece.
• The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small
molten metal pool.
• Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the front end of the
weld pool.
• The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a single piece
of metal
• The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying weld pool for a
few seconds even after the arc is extinguished (shut off)
• This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the solidifying metal thereby
increasing the strength of the joint.

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Advantages
• Suitable for thin metals.
• Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a greater control
over the weld.
• Strong and high quality joints are obtained.
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean weld joints.
Disadvantages
• TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other welding
processes. The welder must maintain short arc length, avoid contact
between electrode and the workpiece and manually feed the filler metal
with one hand while manipulating the torch with the other hand.
• Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten metal
contaminates the same leading to a hard and brittle joint.
• Skilled operator is required.
• Process is slower.
• Not suitable for thick metals.
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METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING
• Metal inert gas welding or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a group of arc
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a bare (uncoated) consumable electrode and the
workpiece in the presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• The consumable electrode acts as a filler metal to fill the gap between the two
workpieces.
• Figure shows the MIG welding process.

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Description
• The equipment consists of a welding torch in which a bare consumable electrode
in the form of a wire is held and guided by a guide tube.
• The electrode material used in MIG welding is of the same material or nearly the
same chemical composition as that of the base metal.
• Its diameter varies from 0.7 -2.4 mm.
• The electrode is fed continuously at a constant rate through feed rollers driven by
an electric motor.
• MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent atmospheric contamination of the
molten weld pool.
• Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a order of 75% to 25% or 80% to 20% is
commonly used.
• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the electrode
holder and then impinges on the workpiece.
• AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead DC is employed and the electrode is
positively charged. This results in faster melting of the electrode which increases
weld penetration and welding speed.

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Operation
• The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dust, grease and other oxides
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the electrode is also
cleaned with a wire brush.
• The control switch provided in the welding torch is switched ON to initiate the
electric power, shielding gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
• An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode with the workpiece and
instantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small distance
of 1.5-3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
workpiece.
• The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
pool.
• At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts and combines with the
molten metal of the workpieces thereby filling the gap between the two
workpieces.
• The deposited metal upon solidification bonds the joint to form a single piece of
metal.

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Advantages
• MIG welding is fast and economical.
• The electrode and inert gas are automatically fed, and this makes the operator
easy and to concentrate on the arc.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to the continuous wire feed
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean welds.
• Thin and thick metals can be welded.
• Process can be automated.
Disadvantages
• Equipment is costlier
• Porosity (gas entrapment in weld pool) is the most common quality problem in
this process. However, extensive edge preparation can eliminate this defect.

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