Unit II

Leveling - Terms used in leveling, bench marks – dumpy level, leveling staves –
instruments and adjustments ––- leveling methods
Contours- intervals and horizontal characteristics of contours- uses of contours
methods of locating contours – direct method radial line method, method of
squares and cross-section Indirect method: - method of interpolation: arithmetic
and graphic method
Levelling
To prepare a contour map – reservoirs, dams,
alignment of roads, railways etc

To determine the altitudes – hill

determine the volume of earth work – irrigation

canals

To prepare a layout map for water supply and

sanitation
• Level surface (e.g. the geoid)
– A water surface with no motion
– The surface on which all the points are equidistant from the
centre of earth. As earth is a sphere, a level surface will be a
curved surface.
– A surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth.
– Gravity gradient is the normal to the level surface

• Level line:-Line lying on level surface.

• Horizontal surface
– The horizontal surface is tangent to the level surface
– Over short distances (<100 m) the horizontal surface and the
level surface will coincide
– For long leveling lines the effects of the gravity field must be
considered
Horizontal plane:-Horizontal plane through a point is a plane
tangential to level surface. it is perpendicular to plumb line.
Horizontal line:- line lying in the horizontal plane. It is a straight line
tangential to level line.
• Datum:-“It is an arbitrary level surface from
which elevation of points or vertical distances are
measured may be referred”. In India mean sea
level is considered as datum of zero elevation it is
situated at Karachi.
• Mean sea level is the average height of sea for all
stages of tides it is derived by averaging the
hourly tide height over a period of 19 years.
• Elevation or Reduced level:-It is height or depth of
any point above or below any datum. It is
denoted as R.L.
• Height of instrument:-It is the elevation of line of
collimation with respect to datum
• Bench Mark (B.M.):-It is a fixed reference point of
known elevation with respect to datum.
• Bench Marks
• Bench mark is a point of known elevation
• There are 4 kinds of bench marks
• GTS (Great trigonometrically survey bench mark)
• Permanent bench mark
• Arbitrary bench mark
• Temporary bench mark