Unit 1 - Introduction-METROLOGY

ME 2304 Engineering Metrology & Measurement
What is metrology?
It is the science of weights and measures
Refers primarily to the measurements of length, weight, time, etc.
It also includes other engineering measurements for the establishment of a flat, plane
reference surface
To ensuring these process meet specific degrees of both accuracy and precision
The most important parameter in metrology is the length. Metrology is

divided into Industrial Metrology and Medical Metrology under consideration of
its application and may be divided into metrology of length and Metrology of
time under consideration of its quantity
Metrology is mainly concerned with:
 Unit of measurement and their standards.
 Errors of measurement.
 Changing the units in the form of standards.
 Ensuring the uniformity of measurements.
 New methods of measurement developing.
 Analyzing this new methods and their accuracy.
 Establishing uncertainty of measurement.
 Gauges designing, manufacturing and testing.
 Researching the causes of measuring errors.
 Industrial Inspection.
FUNCTIONS OF METROLOGY
 To ensure conservation of national standards.
 Guarantee their accuracy by comparison with international standards.
 To organise training in this field.
 Take part in the work of other National Organization.
 To impart proper accuracy to the secondary standards.
 Carry out Scientific and Technical work in the field of measurement.
 Regulate, supervise and control the manufacturer.
 Giving advice to repair of measuring instruments.
 To inspect and to detect guilty of measurement.

NEED OF INSPECTION
To determine the fitness of new made materials, products Or component part and to
compare the materials, products to the established standard.
It is summarized as
 To conforming the materials or products to the standard.
 To avoid faulty product coming out.
 To maintain the good relationship between customer and manufacturer.
 To meet the interchangeability of manufacturer.
 To maintain the good quality.
 To take decision on the defective parts.
 To purchase good quality raw materials.
 To reduce the scrap.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS:
1.Measurement is the outcome of an opinion formed by observers about some physical

quantity.
2. Measurement is an essential part of the development of technology.
3. Measurement is a complex of operations carried out by means of measuring instruments.
The means of Measurement classified as:
 Standards — Used to reproduce the values of given quantity.
 Fixed gauges — Used to check the dimensions, form.
 Measuring instruments — Used to determine the measured values.

The important elements of a measurement is
 Measurand
 Reference
 Comparator
1. Measurand:
It is a physical quantity or property (length, diameter, thickness, angle etc.).
2. Reference:
Reference is a physical quantity or property and comparisons are made by them.
3. Comparator:
Comparing measurand with some other reference.

NEED FOR MEASUREMENT
 To determine the true dimensions of a part.

 To increase our knowledge and understanding of the world.
 Needed for ensuring public health and human safety.
 To convert physical parameters into meaningful numbers.
 To test if the elements that constitute the system function as per the design.
 For evaluating the performance of a system.
 For studying some basic laws of nature.
 To ensure interchangeability with a view to promoting mass production.
 To evaluate the response of the system to a particular point.
 Check the limitations of theory in actual situation.
 To establish the validity of design and for finding new data and new designs.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Direct comparison with Primary or Secondary Standard.
2. Indirect comparison with a standard through calibration system.
3. Comparative method.
4. Coincidence method.
5. Fundamental method.
6. Contact method.
7. Transposition method.
8. Complementary method.
9. Deflection method.
Measurements Standards:
→ English Speaking Countries (English System):

Pound, Foot, Second
→ Metric System (SI – System International):

Kilogram, Meter, Second
Measurable Parameters
 What do we want to measure?
- Length or distance - Mass

- Temperature - Elemental composition
- Viscosity - Displacements or distortions
- Time - Pressure
- Forces - Stress
- Strain - Friction
- Resistance - Roughness
- Depth - Intensity
- etc.
Dimensionless Unit
Name Symbol Quantity Definition
radian rad Angle The unit of angle is the angle subtended

at the centre of a circle by an arc of the
circumference equal in length to the
radius of the circle. There are 2π radians
in a circle.
steradian sr Solid The unit of solid angle is the solid angle
angle subtended at the centre of a sphere of
radius r by a portion of the surface of the
sphere having an area r2. There are 4π
steradians on a sphere.
Name Symbol Quantity Expressed in base units
Hertz Hz Frequency S-1

Newton N Force Kg m s-1
Joule J Energy Nm
Watt W Power J/s
Pascal Pa Pressure, Stress N/m2
Lumen Lm Luminous flux cd sr
Lux Lx I luminance lm/m2
Coulomb C Electric charge As
Volt V Electric potential difference W/A
Ohm Ω Electric Resistance V/A
Farad F Electric Capacitance C/V
Weber Wb Magnetic flux Kg m2 s-2 A-1
Tesla T Magnetic Flux density Wb/m2
Henry H Inductance Wb/A
Siemens S Electric Conductance Ω-1
Becquerel Bq Radioactivity s-1
Gray Gy Adsorbed Dose (of ionizing radiation) J/kg
Sievert Sv Equivalent Dose (of ionizing J/kg
radiation)
Katal Kat Catalytic activity Mol/s
Degree of Celsius C
0
Thermodynamic Temperature K
► Sensitivity:
Is the smallest difference in dimensions that the instrument can detect.
► Accuracy:
The ability of a measurement to match the actual value of the quantity being
measured.
► Precision:
The degree to which the instrument gives repeated measurements of the same
standard.
The difference between precision and accuracy can be shown by

the spread of shooting of a tar-get (as shown in Diagram below):
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
PRECISION INSTRUMENTS
Eg : Micrometre,Vernier caliper etc.
ACCURACY
NON-PRECISION INSTRUMENTS
Eg : Graduated rule,Scale etc.
DIRECT READING :: Used to determine the actual

dimension and size.
MODE IN DIRECT or TRANSFER TYPE : It transfer

the measurement from the work to a direct measuring
instrument and a comparison is made.
LINE MEASURING DEVICES

TYPE
END MEASURING DEVICES
IMPORTANT TERMS IN MEASUREMENT
Calibration: If a known input is given to the measurement system the output deviates
from the given input, the corrections are made in the instrument and then the output is
measured. This process is called calibration.
Sensitivity:
True size and Actual size: True size mean theoretical size of a dimension which is
free from errors. Actual size mean size obtained through measurement with permissible
error.
Range: The physical variables that are measured between two values. On is the higher
calibration value H, and the other is Lower value L. The difference between H and L, is
called range.
Span: The algebraic difference between higher calibration values to lower calibration
value.
Example: In a measurement of temperature higher value is 200°t and lower value is 150°C
means span = 200 — 150 = 50°C
Resolution: The minimum value of the input signal is required to cause appreciable
change in the output known as resolution.
Threshold: The minimum value of input signal that is required to make a change or start
from zero.
Back lash: The maximum distance through which one part of the instrument is moved
without disturbing the other part.
Uncertainty: The range about the measured value within the true value of the
measured quantity is likely to lie at the stated level of confidence
Repeatability: - Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that during a Mechanical

cycle, a process does not stop at the same location, or move through the same spot each
time. The variation range is referred to as repeatability.
The accuracy of measurement depends upon
The ability of the operator.
Variation of temperature
Method adopted for measurement
Deformation of the instrument

ELEMENTS OF MEASURING SYSTEM:

1) Measuring Instruments
2) Calibration Standards
3) Work piece
4) Person who is carrying out the measurement
5) Environment
The above said five elements composed into the acronym “SWIPE”.
Where, S — Standard
W — Work piece
I — Instrument
P —Person
E — Environment
The factors affecting these five elements:
1. Standard: - Affected by Temperature, time, thermal expansion and elasticity.
2. Work piece: - Surface finish, cleanliness, supporting elements, and elastic
properties.
3. Instrument: - Friction, error. mechanical parts.
4. Person: - Ability to measure, training, cost estimation.
5. Environment: - Light. Temperature, Humidity.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT:
Error is the difference between the measured value and the true value.
Error in measurement = Measured Value — True value
The errors in measurement can be expressed either as an absolute error or on relative
error.
TYPES OF ERRORS
1. Static error:
It is from the physical nature of the various components of measuring system.
The static errors due to environmental effect and other properties which influence
the apparatus also reason for static errors.
a) Characteristic error:
•The deviation of the output of the measuring system from the nominal
performance specifications is called characteristic error.
•The linearity, repeatability, hysteresis and resolution are part of the characteristic
error.
b) Reading errors:
•It is exclusively applied to the read out device. The reading error describes the
factors parallax error and interpolation error.
•The use of mirror behind the readout indicator eliminates the occurrence of
parallax error.
•Interpolation error is a reading error resulting from the inexact evaluation of the
position ‘ of index.
(c) Environmental errors:
•Every instrument is manufactured and calibrated at one place and it is used in
some other place where the environmental conditions such as temperature,
pressure, and humidity are changes.
2. Loading errors:
Loading means the measuring instrument always takes input from the signal source. Due to
this, the signal source will always be altered by the act of measurement known loading.
Example: If steam flow through the nozzle, it is very difficult to find the perfect flow rate.
This is called loading error.
3. Dynamic error:
This is due to time variations in the measurand. The dynamic errors are caused by inertia,
friction and clamping action. The dynamic errors are mainly classified into
a) Systematic errors or Controllable errors.
b) Random errors.
a) Systematic errors:
•The systematic are constant and similar in form. These are controllable in both their sense
and magnitude. The systematic errors are easily determined and reduced, hence these are
also called as controllable errors.
Systematic errors includes
1. Calibration errors.
2. Ambient or Atmospheric conditions
3. Avoidable errors.
4. Stylus pressure;
1. Calibration errors:
Calibration is a process of giving a known input to the measurement system and also
taking necessary actions to see that the out of the measurement system matches with
its input. If the instrument is not calibrated, the instrument will show very high degree
of error.
2. Ambient errors:
This is due to variation in atmospheric conditions (Example: Pressure. Temperature
and moisture) normally the instruments are calibrated at particular pressure and
temperatures.
Temperature will not be equal at all places. If the temperature and pressure varies, the
ambient error will be formed. Standard temperature of 20°C and pressure of 760mm
Hg is taken as ambient condition.
3. Avoidable errors:
This type of error due to parallax, non-alignment of work piece centers, and improper
location of measuring instrument. For example placing a thermometer in sunlight for
measuring air temperature will cause the Instrument location error.
4. Stylus pressure:
Whenever a component measured under pressure the deformation of the work piece and
surface deflection will occur. The pressure involved is generally small but this is sufficient
to cause appreciable deformation on stylus and the work piece
b) Random errors:
These types of errors occurs Randomly and reason for this type of errors cannot be
specified.
The source for this type of errors are
1. Displacement of level joints in the measuring instrument.
2. Small variation in the position of settings.
3. Reading scale error due to operator.

CAUSES OF ERRORS
1. Calibration error: These are caused due to the variation in the calibrated scale from its
normal value.
2. Environment errors: These errors are caused due to humidity condition, temperature, and
altitude.
3. Assembly errors: The assembly errors are due to 1.. Displaced scale i.e. incorrect fitting of
the scale. 2. Non-uniform division of the scale. 3. Due to distorted pointer.
4. Random errors: There is no specific reason for causing of Random errors. It may naturally
occur.
5. Systematic errors (or) Bias errors: These type of errors caused due to repeated readings.
6. Chaotic errors: Chaotic errors are caused due to vibrations, noises, and shocks.
What is Microsystems Metrology

Measurement of physical dimensions of Microsystems or
structures that are at the dimension scale below our ability to
perceive without the help of measurements systems or instruments
Microsystems: IC, MEMS
Microstructures: Line widths, film thickness, surface structure and
roughness, step heights, particle size, atomic composition, defect
inspections, etc
Nanosystem metrology is emerging now!
Where Metrology at the Micro Level is Used

Precision engineering and measurements
Micron and nano manufacturing
Research and development
Calibration of instruments and standards

SI Base Units
 Basic Unit of Length

 Meter is fundamental unit of length in the metric system.
The meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the
distance between the equator and either pole; however,
the original survey was inaccurate and the meter was
later defined simply as the distance between two
scratches on a bar made of a platinum-iridium alloy and
kept at Sevres, France, near Paris. More recently, it has
been defined as the distance light travels through a
vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. The meter is now
the legal standard of length for most of the world, other
standards, such as the yard, being defined in terms of the
meter.
 Basic Unit of Mass
 Kilogram is fundamental unit of mass is equal to the mass of the
international prototype kilogram (a platinum-iridium cylinder) kept
at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM), Sèvres,
Paris (1st CGPM (1889), CR 34-38).

Basic Unit of Time

Second is fundamental unit of time is the duration of exactly 9 192
631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133
atom at a temperature of 0 K (13th CGPM (1967-1968) Resolution 1,
CR 103).
Basic Unit of Electrical Current

Ampere is fundamental unit of electrical current is the constant current which,
if maintained in two straight parallel conductors, of infinite length and
negligible cross-section, placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum, would produce a
force between these conductors equal to 2×10 −7 Newton per meter of length
(9th CGPM (1948) Resolution 7, CR 70).

Basic Unit of thermodynamic Temperature

Kelvin is fundamental unit of thermodynamic temperature (or absolute
temperature) is the fraction 1/273.16 (exactly) of the thermodynamic temperature
at the triple point of water (13th CGPM (1967) Resolution 4, CR 104).

 Convert Measurement Units of Length

 Meter to Inches
 multiply by 39.37
 Meter to Feet
 Meter to Yards
 Meter to Miles
 multiply by 6.214 E-4.
 Convert Measurement Units of Mass
 Kilogram to Pound
 Multiply by 2.204621
TOLERANCE
 The total amount a dimension may vary. It is the difference

between the maximum and minimum limits.
Way to express:
1. Direct limits or as tolerance limits applied to a dimension
2. Geometric tolerances
3. A general tolerance note in title block
4. Notes referring to specific condition
1. Direct limits and tolerance value
3.53
3.49
A) Direct limits
3.49 ± 0.003
B) Tolerance value
2. Geometric Tolerance System

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is
a method of defining parts based on how they
function, using standard ANSI symbols
3. Tolerance Specification in Title
Block
General tolerance note specifies the tolerance
for all unspecified tolerance dimensions
4. Notes Referring to Specific Condition
 General Tolerances could be in the form of a note similar to
the one shown below:
ALL DECIMEL DIMENSIONS TO BE HELD TO ± .002”
MEANS THAT A DIMENSION SUCH AS .005 WOULD BE

ASSIGNED A TOLERANCE OF ± 0.002, RESULTING IN
UPPER LIMIT OF .502 AND A LOWER LIMIT OF .498
Important Terms – single part

.502 Upper Limit (LMC)
.498 Lower Limit (MMC)
 Nominal Size – general size, usually expressed in

common fraction (1/2” for the slot)
 Basic Size – theoretical size used as starting point (0.500”
for the slot)
 Actual Size – measured size of the finished part (0.501”
for the slot)
Important Terms – single part

 Limits – maximum and minimum sizes shown by tolerances
(.502 and .498 – larger value is the upper limit and the
smaller value is the lower limit, for the slot)
 Tolerances – total allowable variance in dimensions (upper
limit – lower limit) – object dimension could be as big as the
upper limit or as small as the limit or anywhere in between
 Allowance – the minimum clearance or maximum
interference between parts
 Fit – degree of tightness between two parts
Clearance fit – tolerance of mating parts always leave a
space
Interference fit – tolerance of mating parts always interfere
Transition fit – sometimes interfere, sometimes clear
Shaft and Hole Fits

Shaft and Hole Fits

Tolerance
 Tolerance is permitted variation of size of a part to allow for
variation in manufacturing process
 Tolerance is indirectly a measure of quality, the smaller the
tolerance, the higher the quality; it is also related to the cost of
production
 Ideal interchangeable mating parts would be those without any
kind of dimensional variation – exact size on blue print or
specification
Questions Part A
1. Define –Metrology
2. State any two need for measurement.
3. Define error. How is it related to accuracy?
4. Differentiate precision and accuracy.
5. Define the form “reliability”.
6. Define the form “calibration”.
7. What is meant by precision?
8. What are the different types of errors?
9. Define the form “backlash”.
10. Define the form “resolution”.
11. Define the form “sensitivity”.
12. Define the form “uncertainty”.
13. Define the form “repeatability”.
14.Name the elements of measurement?
15.Give any five methods of measurements?
16. Define the form “Precision”.
17. Define the form “Accuracy
18.Name the elements of measuring system?
Questions Part B
1.Explain the needs for measurements in Metrology?
2.(a) What are the objectives of measurements.
(b) Explain briefly various types static errors involved in measurements.
3.(i) Describe with a good example precision and accuracy.
(ii) How does the reliability play the important role in quality?
4. Mention the various types of error and explain instrument loading errors and dynamic
errors.
5.(a) State and explain the five basic elements of measuring system.
(b) Describe the following types of errors
(i) Environmental error
(ii) Parallax error
(iii) Cosine error.
Questions Part B
6. Differentiate between(i) Absolute error and relative error and (ii) Repeatability and
reproducibility of measurement.
7. Explain the following terms.
(i) Calibration (ii) Reproducibility (iii) Sensitivity (iv) Magnification.
8.Define –Error. Explain about the errors in measurements and its causes in detail

Unit 1 - Introduction-METROLOGY

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ME 2304 Engineering Metrology & Measurement

Refers primarily to the measurements of length, weight, time, etc.

The most important parameter in metrology is the length. Metrology is

 Unit of measurement and their standards.

 Changing the units in the form of standards.

 Ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

 New methods of measurement developing.

 Analyzing this new methods and their accuracy.

 Establishing uncertainty of measurement.

 Gauges designing, manufacturing and testing.

 Researching the causes of measuring errors.

 Guarantee their accuracy by comparison with international standards.

 To organise training in this field.

 Take part in the work of other National Organization.

 To impart proper accuracy to the secondary standards.

 Carry out Scientific and Technical work in the field of measurement.

 Regulate, supervise and control the manufacturer.

 Giving advice to repair of measuring instruments.

 To inspect and to detect guilty of measurement.

1.Measurement is the outcome of an opinion formed by observers about some physical

The means of Measurement classified as:

 Standards — Used to reproduce the values of given quantity.

 Fixed gauges — Used to check the dimensions, form.

 Measuring instruments — Used to determine the measured values.

It is a physical quantity or property (length, diameter, thickness, angle etc.).

Reference is a physical quantity or property and comparisons are made by them.

Comparing measurand with some other reference.

 To determine the true dimensions of a part.

1. Direct comparison with Primary or Secondary Standard.

2. Indirect comparison with a standard through calibration system.

→ English Speaking Countries (English System):

→ Metric System (SI – System International):

- Length or distance - Mass

Name Symbol Quantity Definition

radian rad Angle The unit of angle is the angle subtended

Hertz Hz Frequency S-1

The difference between precision and accuracy can be shown by

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

DIRECT READING :: Used to determine the actual

MODE IN DIRECT or TRANSFER TYPE : It transfer

LINE MEASURING DEVICES

Repeatability: - Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that during a Mechanical

The accuracy of measurement depends upon

The ability of the operator.

Method adopted for measurement

Deformation of the instrument

ELEMENTS OF MEASURING SYSTEM:

Error in measurement = Measured Value — True value

The errors in measurement can be expressed either as an absolute error or on relative

The source for this type of errors are

1. Displacement of level joints in the measuring instrument.

2. Small variation in the position of settings.

3. Reading scale error due to operator.

the scale. 2. Non-uniform division of the scale. 3. Due to distorted pointer.

What is Microsystems Metrology

Where Metrology at the Micro Level is Used

Micron and nano manufacturing

Research and development

Calibration of instruments and standards

 Basic Unit of Length

 Basic Unit of Mass

 Kilogram is fundamental unit of mass is equal to the mass of the

international prototype kilogram (a platinum-iridium cylinder) kept