BASIC RADIO THEORY

ELEMENT

There are 108 elements in nature.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
ATOMS ARE THE SMALLEST PARTICLE OF
AN ELEMENT THAT SHOWS ITS
PROPERTIES.

ATOMS ARE BUILDING BRICKS OF ALL

MATTER AND MATTER IS ELECTRICAL IN
NATURE. AN ATOM CONSIST OF :

A) NUCLEUS

B) ORBITS
BOHR’S ATOM
BOHR’S ATOM
 NUCLEUS
THE CENTRAL PART OF THE ATOM
CONTAINS :

PROTONS ( + ve CHARGE )

NEUTRONS ( NEUTRAL )
 ORBITS
• OUTER PART OF THE ATOM
CONTAINS ELECTRONS WHICH HAVE
A - ve CHARGE.
• MASS OF ELECTRON IS NEGLIGIBLE.
• CHARGE IS EQUAL AND OPPOSITE TO
THAT OF A PROTON.
• ATOMIC NO = NO OF PROTONS
= NO OF ELECTRONS
 ATOM

CONSTITUENT SYMBOL CHARGE MASS

ELECTRONS E- -1 9.1 X 10-28 G

1836 X ELECTRON
PROTONS P+ +1
MASS

APPROXIMATELY
NEUTRONS N 0
THAT OF P+
 VALENCE SHELL & FREE ELECTRONS

THE OUTER SHELL IS CALLED VALANCE

SHELL.
ELECTORNS IN OUTER SHELL ARE CALLED
FREE ELECTRONS.
THESE ELECTRONS CAN BE EASILY
DISLODGED FROM THE OUTER SHELL
FROM THE ATOM.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
• FOR A CHARGE TO FLOW THROUGH, A
CONDUCTOR REQUIRES A FORCE.

• THIS FORCE IS PROVIDED BY THE

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE APPLIED
ACROSS THE TERMINALS.
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
• THE CURRENT THAT PERIODICALLY
CHANGES DIRECTION & CONTINUOUSLY
CHANGES MAGNITUDE

• IT CAN BE PRODUCED BY :

a) STATIONARY COIL AND MOVING

MAGNETIC FIELD

b) STATIONARY MAGNETIC FIELD AND

MOVING COIL
 ELECTRICAL FIELD

• A CHARGE WHETHER MOVING OR

STATIONARY SETS UP AN
ELECTRICAL FIELD

• STRENGTH OF THE FIELD DEPENDS

ON QUANTUM OF CHARGE
 RADIO WAVES
THE OSCILLATOR IS AN ELECTRONIC
DEVICE FOR CREATING VOLTAGES
THAT CAN BE MADE TO SURGE BACK
AND FORTH AT WHATEVER
FREQUENCY IS DESIRED
WHEN RF ENERGY IS APPLIED TO A
CONDUCTOR (ANTENNA), THE
ANTENNA RESONATES (VIBRATES).
THE ANTENNA PROVIDES A MEANS OF
RADIATING THE ELECTROMAGNETIC
(EM) WAVES INTO THE AIR
 MAGNETIC FIELD

SPEED OF LIGHT = ELECTRICAL FIELD

MAGNETIC FIELD

THEREFORE MAGNETIC
COMPONENT IS VERY SMALL
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
• EACH WAVE PROPAGATES
THROUGH SPACE WITH
ALTERNATING ELECTRICAL AND
MAGNETIC FIELDS.

• LIGHT WAVES WITH UV & IR

RADIATIONS WERE THE EARLIEST
EXAMPLES.

• EM WAVES TRAVEL AT THE SPEED

OF LIGHT.
 PROPAGATION OF EM WAVES

• IN FREE SPACE ALL RADIO WAVES &

EM WAVES TRAVEL IN A STRAIGHT
LINE AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT.

• A TYPICAL SINUSOIDAL WAVE WHEN

PLOTTED AGAINST TIME GIVES
CHANGE IN THE WAVE AMPLITUDE
 THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
THE VISIBLE SPECTRUM
 SPECTRUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
λ λ C ENERGY
REGION (ANGS) (cm) (HZ) (EV)

RADIO > 109 > 10 < 3 X 109 < 10-5

MICRO 109 - 106 10 - 0.01 3 X 109 - 3 X 1012 10-5 - 0.01

INFRARED 106 - 7000 0.01 - 7 X 10-5 3 X 1012 - 4.3 X 1014 0.01 - 2

VISIBLE 7 X 10-5 – 4.3 X 1014 – 2-3

7000 - 4000
4 X 10-5 7.5 X 1014

UV 4000 - 10 4 X 10-5 - 10-7 7.5 X 1014 - 3 X 1017 3 - 103

X-RAYS 10 - 0.1 10-7 - 10-9 3 X 1017 - 3 X 1019 103 - 105

GAMMA < 0.1 < 10-9 > 3 X 1019 > 105

 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

• 1. CYCLE ONE COMPLETE SERIES OF VALUES OR ONE COMPLETE

PROCESS, RETURNING TO VALUES OF ORIGIN.
• 2. FREQUENCY (f ) No OF CYCLES/SEC. UNITS ARE HERTZ.
• 1 Hz = 1 C/S, 1 K Hz = 10 C/S
• 1 M Hz = 10 C/S, 1 G Hz = 10 C/S
 TERMS & DEFINITIONS
• CYCLE : ONE COMPLETE SERIES OF
VALUES OR ONE COMPLETE PROCESS IS
ONE CYCLE.
• WAVELENGTH : THE PHYSICAL
DISTANCE TRAVELLED BY THE WAVE IN
ONE CYCLE.
• AMPLITUDE : THE MAXIMUM
DISPLACEMENT OF THE WAVE ABOUT ITS
MEAN POSITION.
• FREQUENCY : THE NO OF CYCLES
OCCURRING IN ONE SECOND.
 PHASE
• THE INSTANTANEOUS POSITION OF A
PARTICLE IN A WAVE OR POSITION OF A
PARTICLE AT A GIVEN TIME

• TWO WAVES OF THE SAME FREQUENCY

WHEN TRANSMITTED AT THE SAME TIME
ARRIVE AT A POINT IN PHASE

• PHASE DIFFERENCE IS THE ANGULAR

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
CORRESPONDING POINTS ON THE
WAVEFORMS
PHASE
 PHASE DIFFERENCE

EXAMPLES
SPEED OF RADIO WAVES
SPEED OF LIGHT IS 299,792,458 m/sec
WHICH IS APPROX

= 3 X 108 m/sec
= 162,000 Nm/sec
= 186,000 Sm/sec
= 300,000 km/sec
 POLAR DIAGRAM
• IT IS THE LINE JOINING POINTS OF
EQUAL INTENSITY AT A GIVEN TIME.

OR

• A LINE SO PLOTTED THAT IT GIVES

THE RELATIVE VALUES OF THE FIELD
STRENGTHS OR THE POWER
RADIATED AT VARIOUS POINTS IN
BOTH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
PLANES.
 POLAR DIAGRAM

•
 POLARIZATION

• ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

ARE PRODUCED WHEN E/M WAVES
TRAVEL THROUGH SPACE
• THESE FIELDS ARE AT RIGHT ANGLES
TO EACH OTHER
• A VERTICAL AERIAL TRANSMITS THE
ELECTRICAL FIELD IN A VERTICAL
PLANE
 POLARISATION

POLARISATION

ANTENNAS ARE DESIGNED TO PICK UP

ELECTRICAL COMPONENT ONLY
CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
 MODULATION
PROCESS OF IMPRESSING
INTELLIGENCE ON A RADIO CARRIER
WAVE (CW) IN ORDER TO CONVEY
INFORMATION
VARIOUS TYPE OF MODULATION ARE
(a) KEYING
(b) AMPLITUDE MODULATION
(c) FREQUENCY MODULATION
(d) PULSE MODULATION
 NEED FOR MODULATION
1. PRACTICAL ANTENNA HEIGHT:
LOWER THE FREQUENCY LARGER
THE ANTENNA.

2. OPERATING RANGE : LOWER THE

FREQUENCY LOWER THE RANGE.

3. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION :
AUDIO FREQUENCIES WHEN
TRANSMITTED THROUGH SPACE
GET ATTENUATED.
 TYPES OF MODULATION

• AMPLITUDE MODULATION

• FREQUENCY MODULATION

• PULSE MODULATION
AMPLITUDE MODULATION

THE AMPLITUDE OF THE

CARRIER IS CHANGED IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE
INTENSITY OF THE SIGNAL

THE FREQUENCY OF THE

CARRIER WAVE IS KEPT
CONSTANT
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
 MODULATION DEPTH

THE RATIO OF THE AMPLITUDES OF

THE SIGNAL TO THE
UNMODULATED CARRIER WAVE
EXPRESSED IN PERCENTAGE

MOD. DEPTH = AMPLITUDE OF SIGNAL *100

AMPLITUDE OF CW
TEMPORAL REPRESENTATIONS OF
DSB-AM SIGNALS
 IMPORTANCE OF MOD. DEPTH
1. IF DEPTH LESS THAN 50% - AUDIO
SIGNALS NOT VERY STRONG

2. IF DEPTH MORE THAN 75% - AUDIO

SIGNALS ARE STRONG AND CLEAR

3. IF DEPTH MORE THAN 100% -

DISTORTION IN RECEPTION &
WASTAGE OF POWER
GREATER THE MODULATION, LESSER
THE RANGE
FREQUENCY MODULATION

THE FREQUENCY OF THE

CARRIER IS CHANGED IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE
INTENSITY OF THE AF SIGNAL

THE AMPLITUDE OF THE

CARRIER WAVE IS KEPT
CONSTANT
FM
 ADVANTAGES OF FM

1. NOISELESS RECEPTION

2. HIGH EFFICIENCY

3. HI-FI RECEPTION.
 DISADVANTAGES OF FM

1. COMPLICATED RECEIVERS

2. OPERATES ON VHF, HENCE

RANGE IS LESS.
 COMPARISON OF AM AND FM

AM FM

1. TRANSMITTER COMPLEX SIMPLE

2. RECEIVER SIMPLE
COMPLEX
3. STATIC EXCESSIVE ALMOST
NIL
4. BAND WIDTH SMALL LARGE
5. POWER FOR TX LARGE SMALL
 SIDE BANDS

WHENEVER A CONTINUOUS
WAVE IS MODULATED BY A
FREQUENCY LOWER THAN
ITSELF, ADDITIONAL
FREQUENCIES OCCUR ON EITHER
SIDE OF THE CW FREQUENCY
THESE ARE CALLED SIDE BANDS.
THE INTELLIGENCE IS CARRIED
IN THESE SIDE BANDS.
 AM CW

COMPRISES OF
CW FREQ
CW FREQ + AUDIO FREQ
CW FREQ - AUDIO FREQ
AM CW SIDEBANDS
SPECTRAL REPRESENTATIONS OF DSB-
AM SIGNALS
 SINGLE SIDE BANDS

ADVANTAGES

(a ) LESSER FREQUENCY SPACE

REQUIRED RESULTING IN LESSER
CONGESTION

(b ) LESSER POWER REQUIRED.

GREATER RANGES
 FM CW

LARGER BAND WIDTH DUE

MULTIPLE SIDE BANDS. THIS
IS WHY FM CW CAN OPERATE
MAINLY IN VHF BAND.
FM CW
 PULSE MODULATION

• PHASE MODULATION CONSISTS OF

PULSE AMPLITUDE
PULSE FREQUENCY
PULSE WIDTH

MAINLY USED IN RADARS

 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

WHEN WAVES MEET A BOUNDARY, WHERE

THE MEDIUM CHANGES, THEY MAY:

REFLECT - BOUNCE BACK

REFRACT - GO THROUGH THE BOUNDARY,

USUALLY CHANGING SPEED AND DIRECTION

GET ABSORBED - GIVE UP THEIR ENERGY,

WARMING UP THE SURFACE LAYER
 DIFFRACTION

WHEN WAVES MEET A GAP IN A BARRIER, THEY

CARRY ON THROUGH THE GAP. THIS MAY SEEM
OBVIOUS, BUT WHAT HAPPENS ON THE FAR SIDE OF
THE GAP ISN'T SO STRAIGHTFORWARD.

THE WAVES ALWAYS 'LEAK' TO SOME EXTENT INTO

THE SHADOW AREA BEYOND THE GAP. THIS IS
CALLED DIFFRACTION

THE EXTENT OF THE SPREADING DEPENDS ON HOW

THE WIDTH OF THE GAP COMPARES TO THE
WAVELENGTH OF THE WAVES
 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES

IN A GIVEN MEDIUM, RADIO WAVES TRAVEL AT A

CONSTANT SPEED. (FREE SPACE - 3 X 10 M/S)
WHEN PASSING FROM ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER
OF DIFFERENT REFRACTIVE INDEX THE VELOCITY
OF THE WAVES CHANGES. THEY ARE ALSO
DEFLECTED TOWARDS THE MEDIUM OF HIGHER
REFRACTIVE INDEX
RADIO WAVES ARE REFLECTED BY OBJECTS
COMMENSURATE WITH WAVELENGTHS.
UNINFLUENCED. RADIO WAVES TRAVEL IN
STRAIGHT LINES.
 TYPES OF RADIO WAVES

GROUND WAVES SKY WAVES

SURFACE WAVES SPACE WAVES

DIRECT WAVES

GROUND
REFLECTED WAVES
 RADIO SPECTRUM
ABREVIATION FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH

VLF 3 - 30 K Hz 100 - 10 km

LF 30 - 300 K Hz 10,000 - 1000 m

MF 300 - 3000 K Hz 1000 - 100 m

HF 3 - 30 M Hz 100 - 10 m

VHF 30 - 300 M Hz 10 - 01 m

UHF 300 - 3000 M Hz 100 - 10 cm

SHF 3000 - 30000 M Hz 10 - 01 cm

EHF 30000 - 300000 MHz 1 - 0.1 cm

 SURFACE WAVES

DIFFRACTION

DIFFRACTION

FREQUENCY
 SURFACE WAVES

ATTENUATION

FACTORS
1. SURFACE
ATTENUATION
2. FREQUENCY

FREQUENCY
SURFACE WAVES
 SUMMARY OF GROUND RANGES FROM RADIO
WAVES
ATTENUATION DIFFRACTION RANGE
VLF LEAST MAXIMUM 3000 - 4000 nm

LF LESS REDUCING ~ 1500 nm

MF INCREASING REDUCING 300 - 500 nm LAND

~1000 nm OVER SEA

HF SEVERE LEAST 70 - 100 nm

VHF NIL LOS ONLY
ABOVE ALONG SURFACE
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW FREQUENCIES

LOW EFFICIENCY AERIALS

SEVERE STATIC

HIGH INSTALLATION COST AND POWER REQT

 SPACE WAVES

REFRACTIVE INDEX ( n ) OF ATMOSPHERE IS A FUNCTION OF

PRESSURE, TEMP & HUMIDITY
AS ALT INCREASES, n REDUCES. AS A RESULT, WAVES
REFRACT TOWARDS EARTH CAUSING RANGE TO INCREASE

D = 1.25 HT + 1.25 HR
DUCT PROPAGATION / SUPERREFRACTION
 IONOSPHERE
U/V RAYS

ELECTRONS

GAS MOLECULES

POSITIVE IONS : TOO HEAVY TO

INFLUENCE
LEVEL OF IONISATION : EXTENT OF
REFRACTION
 PROPAGATION : SKY WAVES

THE IONOSPHERE
ELECRICALLY
CONDUCTING SPHERE
D LAYER : 50 - 100
KM, AVG 75 KM
E LAYER : 100 - 150
KM, AVG 125 KM
F LAYER : 150 - 350
KM, AVG 225 KM
 DENSITY OF IONOSPHERE
D LEAST , F MAXIMUM
DIURNAL ACTIVITY : DAY -- DENSITY INCREASES
REFLECTING HT MOVES DN
SEASONAL ACTIVITY : MAX -- EARTH CLOSEST
TO SUN. CAUSES SPORADIC ACTIVITY,
RESULTING IN “SPORADIC-E” RECEPTION IN VHF
BAND (~150 MHz )

11 YEAR SUN-SPOT CYCLE : ENHANCED UV & X-

RADIATION, VHF SIGNALS MAY RETURN
11 YEAR SUNSPOT CYCLE
 ATTENUATION IN ATMOSPHERE

DENSITY OF LAYERS :
GREATER DENSITY -- GREATER ATTENUATION

FREQ IN USE
LOWER FREQ -- GREATER ATTENUATION

PENETRATION DEPTH
HIGHER THE FREQ -- GREATER THE PENETRATION-
GREATER ATTENUATION
 RANGES AVAILABLE

TRANSMISSION POWER

DEPTH OF PENETRATION

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE -- MAX RANGE BY WAVE

LEAVING TANGENTIAL TO EARTH
 CRITICAL ANGLE

α2
α1

FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY AS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

IS INCREASED, DEGREE OF REFRACTION INCREASES
SUCH THAT AN ANGLE IS REACHED WHERE TIR TAKES
PLACE

α2 IS THE CRITICAL ANGLE

 CRITICAL ANGLE

α2
α1

FOR THE SAME FREQUENCY AN INCREASE IN INCIDENCE

BEYOND α2 WOULD ENSURE AN UNINTERRUPTED
RETURN ALTHOUGH POWER MAY HAVE TO BE INCREASED

IF THE FREQUENCY WERE INCREASED AT α2 , THE

CRITICAL ANGLE WOULD INCREASE AS THE WAVES
WOULD TEND TO ESCAPE (DUE TO HIGHER ELECTRON
DENSITY AND LOWER INCIDENCE REQUIREMENT)
THIS ALSO MEANS A HIGHER RANGE WOULD BE
OBTAINED.
 HF COMMUNICATION

CRITICAL FREQUENCY fC FOR PREVAILING

ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS

MUF = fC X sec θi

LUHF
 NIGHT TRANSMISSION

RANGES AT NIGHT ARE GREATER THAN DAY

TIME

IONIZATION LAYER HT

DEPTH OF PENETRATION
 NIGHT TRANSMISSION

RECOMBINATION
REFLECTING HT MOVES UP

RANGE INCREASES, GREATER SKIP DISTANCE

 NIGHT TRANSMISSION

LOWERING OF FREQUENCY ADJUSTS SKIP DISTANCE

LOWER FREQUENCIES REFLECT FROM LOWER HTS
REQUIRE SMALLER CRITICAL ANGLE
 SKIP DISTANCE AND DEAD SPACE

• FOR A GIVEN FREQ, SKIP DIST VARIOUS WITH TIME OF THE DAY
( AND ALSO SEASONS)
• DEAD SPACE POSSIBLE ONLY IN HF
VL 30
Very Low Frequency 3 kHz
F kHz
300
VF Voice Frequency 3 kHz
Hz
EL Extremely low 30 300
F Frequency Hz Hz
UL 30
Ultra Low Frequency 3 Hz
F Hz
QUESTIONS ?