CHAPTER 5:

ELECTROMAGNETICS
EMT238 – ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
Overview
 Introduction
 Faraday’s Law
 Stationary Loop in Time-Varying Magnetic Field
 Ideal Transformer
 Moving Conductor in Static Magnetic Field
 Electromagnetic Generator
 Moving Conductor in Time-Varying Magnetic Field
 Displacement Current
 Boundary Conditions for Electromagnetics
 Charge-Current Continuity Relation
 Free-Charge Dissipation in a Conductor
 Electromagnetic Potentials
Introduction
 Electric charges  electric field & electric currents  magnetic field.
 In static case  𝜕Τ𝜕𝑡 = 0 while in dynamic case  𝜕Τ𝜕𝑡 ≠ 0 which coupling
between electric & magnetic field can be expressed as Maxwell’s
equations.
Faraday’s Law
 Hans Oersted – current induced magnetic fields
that form closed loops around the wires.
 Faraday make hypothesis: if current produces
magnetic field  magnetic field should produce
current in the wire.
 He conducted numerous experiments for 10 years
in London. Similar work was being carried out by
Henry in New York.
 Faraday and Henry discovered:
Magnetic fields can produce an
electric current in a closed loop 
only if the magnetic flux linking the
surface area of the loop changes with
time.
Faraday’s Law
 Magnetic flux passing through a
loop:

Φ = න 𝐁. 𝑑𝐬
𝑆
 Current is induced in the loop
when the magnetic flux changes
by connected or disconnect to
battery. current flow through the coil  voltage
 Current can also flow in loop induced across galvanometer terminals 
while battery is connected to the electromotive force (emf)
coil if loops turns or move closer 𝑑Φ 𝑑
or away from the coil. 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁 = −𝑁 න 𝐁. 𝑑𝐬
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑆
 Physical movement of loop
Faraday’s Law: voltage is induced across
changes the amount of flux
the terminals of a loop if the magnetic flux
linking its surface even B same.
linking its surface changes in time.
Three types of EMF
Stationary Loop in Time-Varying B
 Consider a stationary, single-turn,
conducting, circular loop with contour
C and surface area S is exposed to
a time varying magnetic field B(t).
 Emf induced when S is stationary 
𝑡𝑟
transformer emf, 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝑡𝑟 𝑑𝐁
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁 න . 𝑑𝐬
𝑆 𝑑𝑡
 Transformer emf is voltage
difference across small opening
between terminals 1 and 2.
 Direction of ds (loop’s differential
surface normal) and polarity of
𝑡𝑟
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓  right hand rule  C
indicated by 4 fingers always passes
from +ve terminal to –ve terminal.
Stationary Loop in Time-Varying B
 If the loop has internal resistance:
𝑡𝑟
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝐼=
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑖
For good conductors, Ri is very small and
may be ignored.
𝑡𝑟
 Polarity of 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 and direction of I is
govern by Lenz’s law: current in loop
is always in a direction that opposes
the change of magnetic flux, Φ(𝑡)
that produced I.
 I induces its own magnetic field, Bind,
with a corresponding flux, Φind .
 Direction of Bind  right hand rule
where I in thumb direction Bind
serves to oppose the changing B(t)
Example 1
An inductor is formed by Find:
winding N turns of a thin a) Magnetic flux linking a single turn of
conducting wire into a circular inductor.
loops of radius a. the inductor b) Transformer emf, given N=10,
B =0.2 T, a=10 cm and 𝜔=10 3
loop is in the x-y plane with its 0
rad/s.
center at the origin, and 𝑡𝑟
connected to a resistor R. in c) Polarity of 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 at t=0
the presence of magnetic field d) Induced current in circuit for R=1 kΩ
𝐁 = 𝐵0 𝐲2 ො + 𝐳ො3 sin 𝜔𝑡,
where 𝜔 is the angular
frequency.
Example 2
Determine voltages V1 and V2
across 2 Ω and 4 Ω resistors.
The loop is located in the x-y
plane, it’s area is 4 m2, the
magnetic flux density is 𝐁 =
− 𝐳ො0.3𝑡 (T), and the internal
resistance of the wire may be
ignored.
Ideal Transformer
 Transformer consist of 2 coils wound
around a common magnetic core.
 The primary coil has N1 turns
connected to a voltage source V1(t)
and secondary coil has N2 turns
connected to RL.
 The directions of currents flowing in
two coils: when I1 and I2 are both
positive  flux generated by I2 is
opposite to that generated by I1.
 Transformer  transfer currents,
voltages and impedances between
its primary and secondary circuits,
and vice versa.
Ideal Transformer
 V1 generates I1 in primary coil 
establishes flux Φ in magnetic core:
𝑑Φ
𝑉1 = −𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
 Similar relation on secondary side:
𝑑Φ
𝑉2 = −𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
 Combination of both equations:
𝑉1 𝑁1
=
𝑉2 𝑁2
 In ideal lossless transformer:
𝐼1 𝑁2
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 → =
𝐼2 𝑁1
 Equivalent input resistance: When load is impedance:
2 2 2
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑁1
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝑅𝐿 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝐿
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2
Moving conductor in a static B
 Consider a wire length 𝑙 moving
across a static magnetic field 𝐁 =
𝐳ො𝐵0 with constant velocity u
 Magnetic force on charge q moving
with velocity u in a magnetic field
B: 𝐅m = 𝑞 𝐮 × 𝐁
 Fm = electrical force that would be
exerted on the particle by the
electric field Em: Voltage difference between ends 1&2 
𝐅m 𝑚
motional emf, 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 :
𝐄m = =𝐮×𝐁 1
𝑞 𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉12 = න 𝐄m ∙ 𝑑𝐥
 Em generated by motion of q is 2
1
called motional electric field 
direction perpendicular to plane = න 𝐮 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐥
2
containing u and B. 𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐱ො 𝑢 × 𝐳ො 𝐵0 ∙ 𝐲𝑑𝑙
ො = −𝑢𝐵0 𝑙
Motional EMF
Example 3: Sliding Bar
Rectangular loop has a constant width 𝑙, but with its
length 𝑥0 increases with time as a conducting bar
slides with uniform velocity u in static magnetic field
𝐁 = 𝐳ො 𝐵0 𝑥. Find the motion emf between terminals 1
& 2 and current I flowing through resistor R.
 Example 3: Sliding Bar

Note that B increases with x

The length of the loop is

related to u by x0 = ut. Hence
Example 4: Moving Rod Next to Wire

Wire carries a current I = 10 A. A 30 cm long metal

rod moves with constant velocity 𝐮 = 𝐳ො 5 m/s.
𝜇0 𝐼
Given: 𝐁 = 𝛟෡
2𝜋𝑟
Example 4: Moving Rod Next to Wire
Electromagnetic Generator
 Voltage source passing a current
through the loop to make it turn.
 Electrical energy converted to
mechanical energy.
 Movement of the loop in
magnetic field produce motional
𝑚
emf, 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 .
 Mechanical energy converted to
electrical energy.
EM Generator EMF
 Magnetic field 𝐁 = 𝐳ො 𝐵0 and the axis
rotation of the conducting loop is along
the x-axis.
 Segments 1-2 and 3-4 cross B when the
loop rotates while segment 2-3 and 4-1
never  only segments 1-2 and 3-4
𝑚
contribute to 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 .
 Segment 1-2 moves with velocity u:
𝑤
𝐮=𝐧ෝ𝜔
2
 ෝ × 𝐳ො = 𝐱ො sin 𝛼
𝐧
 Segment 3-4 moves with velocity –u
EM Generator EMF
1 3
𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉14 = න 𝐮 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐥 + න 𝐮 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐥
2 4
𝑙 Τ2 −𝑙Τ2
𝑤 𝑤
=න ෝ𝜔
𝐧 × 𝐳ො𝐵0 ∙ 𝐱ො 𝑑𝑥 + න −ෝ
𝐧𝜔 × 𝐳ො𝐵0 ∙ 𝐱ො 𝑑𝑥
−𝑙 Τ 2 2 𝑙 Τ2 2
𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑤𝑙𝜔𝐵0 sin 𝛼 = 𝐴𝜔𝐵0 sin 𝛼
A is the surface area of the loop and 𝛼 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶0 where 𝐶0 is a constant
determined by initial conditions.
 Similar result can be obtained using Faraday’s Law:

Φ = න 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑧𝐵
Ƹ 0 ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑠
ො = 𝐵0 𝐴 cos 𝛼 = 𝐵0 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶0
𝑆 𝑆
𝑚 𝑑Φ 𝑑
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 =− =− 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶0 = 𝐴𝜔𝐵0 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 0
Moving Conductor in Time-Varying B

 Induced emf is the sum of transformer component and motional

component.
𝑡𝑟 𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 + 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ර 𝐄 ∙ 𝑑𝐥
𝐶
𝜕𝐁
= −න ∙ 𝑑𝐬 + ර 𝐮 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐥
𝑆 𝜕𝑡 𝐶
 General expression by Faraday’s law:
𝑑Φ 𝑑
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 =− = − න 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐬
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑆
Displacement Current
 Differential form Ampere’s law:
𝜕𝐃
𝛻×𝐇=𝐉+
𝜕𝑡
 Integrating both sides over an arbitrary open surface S with contour C:
𝜕𝐃
න 𝛻 × 𝐇 ∙ 𝑑𝐬 = න 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐬 + න ∙ 𝑑𝐬
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝜕𝑡
Application of Conduction
Stoke’s theorem current, Ic Called displacement
 Integral form of Ampere’s law: current, Id:
𝜕𝐃
ර 𝐇. 𝑑𝐥 = 𝐼c + න ∙ 𝑑𝐬 𝐼d = න 𝐉d ∙ 𝑑𝐬
𝐶 𝑆 𝜕𝑡 𝑆
Where 𝐉d = 𝜕𝐃Τ𝜕𝑡
 In short, displacement current
density
ර 𝐇. 𝑑𝐥 = 𝐼c + 𝐼d
𝐶
Displacement Current: Capacitor Circuit
 Consider a parallel-plate
capacitor that connect to ac
source 𝑉𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑉0 cos 𝜔𝑡.
 Wires are perfect conductors
and capacitor insulator
material is perfect dielectric.
 For Surface S1: 𝑉𝑐 𝑉0
𝐄 = 𝐲ො = 𝐲ො cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐼1 = 𝐼1𝑐 + 𝐼1𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝜕𝐃
𝐼1𝑑 = 0 (D=E=0 in perfect cond.) 𝐼2𝑑 = න ∙ 𝑑𝐬
𝑑𝑉𝐶 𝑑 𝑆 𝜕𝑡
𝐼1𝑐 = 𝐶 =𝐶 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜕 𝜀𝑉0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 0 =න 𝐲ො ො
cos 𝜔𝑡 ∙ 𝐲𝑑𝑠
= −𝐶𝑉0 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐴 𝜕𝑡 𝑑
𝜀𝐴
 For Surface S2: = − 𝑉0 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 = −𝐶𝑉0 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑
𝐼2 = 𝐼2𝑐 + 𝐼2𝑑
𝐼2𝑐 = 0 (perfect dielectric) Conclusion: I1 = I2
Example 5
The conduction current flowing through a wire with
conductivity 𝜎 = 2 × 107 S/m and relative
permittivity 𝜖𝑟 = 1 is given by 𝐼𝑐 = 2 sin 𝜔𝑡 (mA). If
𝜔 = 109 rad/s, find the displacement current.
Boundary Conditions
 Boundary conditions derived for electrostatic and magnetostatic fields
remain valid for time-varying fields as well.
Charge-Current Continuity Relation
 Under static conditions, charge
density, 𝜌𝑣 and current density, J
are totally independent of one
another.
 However, in time-varying 𝜌v is
dependent to J.
 By considering
 An arbitrary volume 𝜐 bounded
by a closed surface S  net
charge is Q.
 Net current, I flowing across S out
 Q increase  inward charge into of 𝜐: decrease rate of charge Q
𝜐. Q decrease  outward contained in that volume
charge from 𝜐.
𝑑𝑄 𝑑
𝐼=− = − න 𝜌v 𝑑𝝊
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜐
Charge-Current Continuity Relation
 I also defined as outward flux of  If volume charge density of ∆𝝊 is
J through surface S: not a function of time (𝜕𝜌v Τ𝜕𝑡 =
𝑑 0)  current flowing out of ∆𝝊 =
ර 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐬 = − න 𝜌v 𝑑𝝊 0
𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝜐
𝛻∙𝐉=0
 Apply divergence theorem 
 Equivalent integral-form:
convert surface integral of J to
volume integral 𝛻 ∙ 𝐉:
ර 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐬 = 0
𝑆
ර 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐬 = න 𝛻 ∙ 𝐉𝑑𝝊
𝑆 𝜐
(Kirchhoff’s current law)
𝑑  states the sum of all the currents
= − න 𝜌v 𝑑𝝊 flowing out of a junction is zero:
𝑑𝑡 𝜐
 Charge-current continuity relation ෍ 𝐼𝑖 = 0
or charge continuity equation: 𝑖
𝜕𝜌v
𝛻∙𝐉=−
𝜕𝑡
Free-Charge Dissipation in Conductor
 If an excess free charge q is  In conductor, 𝐉 = 𝜎𝐄
introduced in a conductor  give 𝜕𝜌v
rise to electric field  forces the 𝜎𝛻 ∙ 𝐄 = −
𝜕𝑡
charges of conductor to  Known 𝛻 ∙ 𝐸 = 𝜌v Τ𝜖
rearrange their location. 𝜕𝜌v 𝜎
 The process continue until + 𝜌v = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜖
neutrality is reestablished in
 Given 𝜌v = 𝜌v0 at t=0
conductor material  charge q
resides on the conductor surface. 𝜌v 𝑡 = 𝜌v0 𝑒 − 𝜎Τ𝜖 𝑡 = 𝜌v0 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏𝑟
 How fast the excess charge Where 𝜏𝑟 = 𝜖Τ𝜎  relaxation time
dissipate?  depending on constant.
material, conductor or dielectric.  𝜌v0 decays exponentially at a
𝜕𝜌v rate 𝜏𝑟 .
 From 𝛻 ∙ 𝐉 = −
𝜕𝑡  Charge dissipation process is fast
in a conductor and slow in
insulator.
Electromagnetic Potentials
 In static case, Faraday’s law:  Represent
𝛻∙𝐄=0 ′
𝜕𝐀
𝐄 =𝐄+
 From Ch4 Electrostatic: 𝜕𝑡
𝐄 = −𝛻𝑉  Replace in Faraday’s formulae:
 In dynamic case: 𝛻 × 𝐄′ = 0
𝜕𝐁  Following the same logic in
𝛻×𝐄=− electrostatic:
𝜕𝑡
 From Ch5 Magnetostatic, 𝐁 = 𝐄 ′ = −𝛻𝑉
𝛻×𝐀  Substitute:
𝜕 𝜕𝐀
𝛻×𝐄=− 𝛻×𝐀 −𝛻𝑉 = 𝐄 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 Faraday’s law in dynamic case: 𝜕𝐀
∴ 𝐄 = −𝛻𝑉 −
𝜕𝐀 𝜕𝑡
𝛻× 𝐄+ =0
𝜕𝑡
Retarded Potentials
 A charge distribution 𝜌v exists over a
volume 𝜐′ embedded in a perfect
dielectric with permittivity 𝜖.
 In static conditions, electric potential
V(R) at an observation point in
space:
1 𝜌v (𝐑 𝑖 )
𝑉 𝐑 = න 𝑑𝝊′
4𝜋𝜖 𝜐′ 𝑅′
 In dynamic conditions:
1 𝜌v (𝐑 𝑖 , 𝑡)
𝑉 𝐑, 𝑡 = න 𝑑𝝊′
4𝜋𝜖 𝜐′ 𝑅′  𝑢𝑝 is velocity propagation in medium
 With propagation delay between charge distribution and
𝑉 𝐑, 𝑡 observation point.
1 𝜌v (𝐑 𝑖 , 𝑡 − 𝑅′Τ𝑢𝑝 )  Magnetic vector potential:
= න 𝑑𝝊′
4𝜋𝜖 𝜐′ 𝑅′ 𝜇 𝐉 (𝐑 𝑖 , 𝑡 − 𝑅′Τ𝑢𝑝 )
𝐀 𝐑, 𝑡 = න 𝑑𝝊′
4𝜋 𝜐′ 𝑅′
 Time Harmonic Potentials
If charges and currents vary sinusoidally with time:
Also:

we can use phasor notation:

with Maxwell’s equations become:

Expressions for potentials become:

is wavenumber or phase constant

of the propagation medium
Summary
Quiz 2
A coil consist of 200 turns of wire wrapped around a
square frame of sides 0.25 m. The coil is centered at
the origin with each of its sides parallel to the x- or y-
axis. Find the induced emf if the magnetic field, 𝐁 =
𝐳ො 20𝑒 −3𝑡 .

𝑑𝐁
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁 න . 𝑑𝐬
𝑆 𝑑𝑡
Quiz 2 - answer

𝑑 𝑑 0.125 0.125
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁 න 𝐁. 𝑑𝐬 = −𝑁 න න 𝐁. 𝐳ො𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 −0.125 −0.125
𝑑 0.125 0.125
= −200 න න 𝐳ො20𝑒 −3𝑡 . 𝐳ො𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡 −0.125 −0.125
= −200 −3 20𝑒 −3𝑡 0.25 0.25 = 750𝑒 −3𝑡 V