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DEGRADATION
IN OPTICAL
FIBERS
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Signal Degradation in the Optical Fiber
Signal Attenuation
It determines the maximum unamplified or
repeaterless distance between transmitter and
receiver.
Signal Distortion
•Causes optical pulses broaden.
•Overlapping with neighboring pulses, creating errors
in the receiver output.
•It limits the information carrying capacity of a fiber.
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Intentionally Left Blank
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Attenuation
The Basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber:
1. Absorption:
It is related to the fiber material.
2. Scattering:
It is associated both with the fiber material
and with the structural imperfections in the
optical waveguide.
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Example: Scattering of light by Atmospheric
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Attenuation Units
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Q: Fiber has an attenuation of 0.4 dB/km at a
wavelength of 1310 nm.
Then after it travels 50 km, what is the optical
power loss in the fiber ?
3- Radiation defects
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Absorption
1. Absorption by atomic defects
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Absorption
2. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms
The dominant absorption factor in silica fibers is the
presence of minute quantities of impurities in the fiber
material.
•These impurities include
•OH- (water) ions dissolved in the glass.
•Transition metal ions, such as iron, copper,
chromium and vanadium
Origin :
OH ion impurities in a fiber preform results mainly from the
oxyhydrogen flame used in the hydrolysis reaction of the
SiCl4, GeCl4 and POCl3 starting materials.
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Optical fiber attenuation as a function of wavelength yields nominal values of 0.5 dB/km
at 1310 nm and 0.3 dB/km at 1550 nm for standard single mode fiber. Absorption by the
water molecules causes the attenuation peak around 1400nm for standard fiber. The
dashed curve is the attenuation for low water peak fiber. Irfan khan
Absorption
3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms
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Absorption
Extrinsic Intrinsic
Atomic Defects
(Impurity atoms) Absorption
Absorption in Absorption in
Ultraviolet region Infrared region
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Scattering Losses
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Radiative losses / Bending Losses
• As the lower order modes remain close to the core axis and the higher
modes are closer to the cladding so the higher modes will radiate out of
the fiber first.
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Radiative losses / Bending Losses
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Power loss in a curved fiber
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Radiative losses / Bending Losses
Microbending losses:
It is the radiation loss in optical waveguide results from mode
coupling by random microbends.
Fiber curvature causes repetitive coupling of energy between
the guided modes and the leaky or nonguided modes in the
fiber.
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Macrobending due to poor reeling
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Minimum safe bend radius —shown full size Irfan khan
Bends are shown full size — and may have caused damage to the fiber
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Radiative losses / Bending Losses
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Pressure causes loss at the bends Irfan khan
Is the fiber in use?
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Radiative losses/
Bending losses
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Attenuation
Scattering Radiative
Absorption Losses losses/ Bending
losses
Extrinsic
Intrinsic Atomic
(Impurity
Absorption Defects
atoms)
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Intentionally Left Blank
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Signal Distortion in Fibers
Optical signal weakens from attenuation
mechanisms and broadens due to distortion effects.
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Pulse broadening and attenuation
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Dispersion
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Dispersion
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Dispersion
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Dispersion
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Intermodal delay/ modal delay
Fiber Capacity:
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How to get one mode and solve the problem
We are left with the core diameter. The smaller the core,
the fewer the modes.
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Q: Consider a 1 Km long multimode fiber in which n 1=
1.480 and ∆ = 0.10 , so that n2= 1.465.
Then find ∆T= ?
Where:
L = 1 Km
n1 = 1.480
n2= 1.465
∆ = 0.10
∆T = (Ln12/cn2)∆
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How to characterize dispersion?
• Group delay per unit length can be defined as:
g d 1 d 2 d
2c d
[3-15]
L dω c dk
• If the spectral width of the optical source is not too wide, then the delay
d
difference per unit wavelength along the propagation path is approximately g
For spectral components which are apart, symmetrical around center d
wavelength, the total delay difference over a distance L is:
d g L d 2 d
2
2
d 2c d d2
d d L d 2
L [3-16]
d d V g d
2
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d 2
• 2 is called GVD parameter, and shows how much a light pulse
d 2
broadens as it travels along an optical fiber. The more common parameter
is called Dispersion, and can be defined as the delay difference per unit
length per unit wavelength as follows:
1 d g d 1
2c 2
D [3-17]
L d d V g
2
• In the case of optical pulse, if the spectral width of the optical source is
characterized by its rms value of the Gaussian pulse , the pulse
spreading over the length of L, g can be well approximated by:
d g
g DL [3-18]
d
• D has a typical unit of [ps/(nm.km)].
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Dispersion
Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion
1. Material Dispersion
2. Waveguide Dispersion
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Material Dispersion
Input Cladding
v g ( 1 )
Core Output
Emitter v g ( 2 )
Very short
light pulse
t t
1 o 2 0
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Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion
Material Dispersion:
This refractive index property causes a wavelength
dependence of the group velocity of a given mode; that is,
d 2 d 2 d 2
mat L L L n ( )
dω 2c d 2c d
L dn
n [3-19]
c d
• The pulse spread due to material dispersion is therefore:
d mat L d 2 n
g 2 L Dmat ( ) [3-20]
d c d
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Material dispersion as a function of optical wavelength for pure silica and
13.5 percent GeO2/ 86.5 percent SiO2.
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Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion
Waveguide Dispersion:
/ k n2
2 2 2
/ k n2
b [3-29]
n1 n2
2 2
n1 n2
• Using V number:
V ka(n1 n2 )1/ 2 kan2 2
2 2 [3-33]
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Waveguide Dispersion
• Delay time due to waveguide dispersion can then be expressed as:
L d (Vb)
wg n2 n2
dV
[3-34]
c
d wg n2 L d 2 (Vb)
wg L Dwg ( ) V [3-25]
d c dV 2
Dwg ( )
= Pulse spread
Ex Ey
n1 x // x Ey
t
E
Input light pulse
Suppose that the core refractive index has different values along two orthogonal
directions corresponding to electric field oscillation direction (polarizations). We can
take x and y axes along these directions. An input light will travel along the fiber with Ex
and Ey polarizations having different group velocities and hence arrive at the output at
different times
• The rms value of the differential group delay can be approximated as:
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Chromatic & Total Dispersion
• Chromatic dispersion includes the material & waveguide dispersions.
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Chromatic & Total Dispersion
• Chromatic dispersion includes the material & waveguide dispersions.
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Total Dispersion, zero Dispersion
Fact 1) Minimum distortion at wavelength about 1300 nm for single mode silica fiber.
Fact 2) Minimum attenuation is at 1550 nm for sinlge mode silica fiber.
Strategy: shifting the zero-dispersion to longer wavelength for minimum attenuation and dispersion.
Material Waveguide
Dispersion Dispersion
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Signal Degradation
in the Optical Fiber
Scattering Radiative
Absorption Losses losses
Intramodal
Intermodal Polarization
Dispersion/
Delay/ -mode
Chromatic
Modal Delay Dispersion Extrinsic
Intrinsic Atomic
Dispersion (Impurity
Absorption Defects
atoms)
Material Waveguide
Absorption Absorption Inhomogeneities Compositional
Dispersion Dispersion in in Microscopic Macroscopic
or defects fluctuations
Infrared Ultraviolet bends bends
in fiber in material
region region
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Intentionally Left Blank
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Characteristics of Single Mode Fibers
2. Cutoff wavelength
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Three dimensional refractive index profiles for (a) matched cladding 1310nm
optimized (b) depressed cladding 1310nm optimized (c) triangular dispersion
shifted and (d) quadruple clad dispersion flattened single mode fibers.
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SM-fiber dispersions
V
• Dispersion: [3-30]
d
D ( ) Dmat ( ) Dwg ( ) [3-31]
d
D( ) L [3-32]
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Dispersion for non-dispersion-shifted fibers
(1270 nm – 1340 nm)
d
D ( ) Dmat ( ) Dwg ( )
d
D( ) L
S0 0 2 2
( ) 0 ( )
8
• 0 is relative delay minimum at the zero-dispersion wavelength 0
, and is theS 0
value of the dispersion slope in .
ps/(nm 2 .km)
dD
S 0 S (0 )
d 0
S0 0 4
D ( ) 1 ( )
4
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Dispersion for dispersion shifted fibers (1500
nm- 1600 nm)
S0
( ) 0 ( 0 ) 2 [3-36]
2
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Dispersion Calculation
If tmod, tCD, and tPMD are the modal, chromatic, and polarization
mode dispersion times
Then
Then total dispersion tT can be calculated by the relationship.
Where
tcd = |DCD | L ∆λ
Typical mode field diameter variations with wavelength for (a) 1300 nm
optimized (b) dispersion shifted and (c) dispersion flattened single mode fibers
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Bending-induced attenuation
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International Standards
ITU-T Recommendations for multimode and Single-Mode
Fibers
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Chromatic dispersion as a function of wavelength in various
spectral bands for several different optical fiber types
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Recommendation G.651
Core diameters :
1) 50 µm
2) 62.5 µm
cladding diameters:( For both fibers)
125-µm
Attenuation :
Range form 2.5 dB/km at 850nm to less that 0.6dB/km at 1310 nm
Max PMD: 0.2 ps/ √km This fiber was optimized to have a zero-
dispersion value at 1310 nm.
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Recommendation G.652c/d (low water peak fiber)
It allows operation in the E-band and are used widely for
fiber to the premises (FTTP) installations.
Because
To prevent undesirable nonlinear effects in DWDM systems the
chromatic dispersion values should be positive or negative over the
entire operational band.
Therefore
The use of G.653 fibers for DWDM should be restricted to either the
S band or L band
These fibers are seldom deployed anymore Irfan khan
Recommendation ITU-T G.654 (cutoff wavelength shifted fiber )
Principal characteristic:
It has a positive nonzero dispersion value over the entire C-
band, which is the spectral operating region for eribium doped
optical fiber amplifiers.
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Recommendation ITU-T G.656
This allows
The use of CWDM without chromatic dispersion compensation
and
Also means that 40 additional DWDM channels can be implemented
in this wavelength band.
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Specialty Fibers
Designed to Manipulate or control some characteristic of an
optical fiber.
The light manipulation applications include:
1. Optical signal amplification
2. Optical power coupling
3. Dispersion compensation
4. Wavelength conversions
5. Sensing of physical parameters:
1. Temperature
2. Stress
3. Pressure
4. Vibration
5. Fluid levels
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Specialty Fibers
Specialty fibers can be of either a multimode or a single mode
design.
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Generic Parameter Values of an Erbium-Doped Fiber for
Use in the C-Band
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Core
Cladding
Core
Cladding
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