Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 36

Chapter 1:

Introduction
Principles of Computer Networks
and Communications

M. Barry Dumas and Morris Schwartz


Objectives
 Describe evolving role of communications
 Describe wiring dilemma of connecting phones
 Provide historical perspective on voice and data
communications
 Differentiate between types of signaling and
identify the role of bandwidth in communications
 Describe differences in standards and
architecture models in design of networks

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 2
Overview
Communication is at the heart of humankind’s ability to

 Disseminate ideas and information


 Coordinate complex tasks
 Build cohesive societies

“Communication provides both the fundamental


underpinnings of civilization and an important
mechanism for its growth and development.”

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 3
Communications between People

 Voice (within hearing distance)


 Writing, fixed location
 Writing over distance (via postal)
 Voice, fixed location (electromechanical)
 Voice over distance (electromagnetic
waves)
 Voice over distance (optical)

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 4
Historical Perspective of
Communications—Timeline
 1844 Telegraph begins operating
 1876 Telephone is invented
 1880 30,000 telephones in United States
 1891 Electromechanical switchboard
(Strowger patents to thwart competitor’s wife)
 1938 Bell crossbar switch
(faster, more reliable, less noise)
 1958 AT&T develops modem here
 1969 ARPANET begins as first
packet-switched network
 1970s Data networks separate from the voice network
 1980s Optical fiber transmissions actively deployed
Internet available to general public
 1990s Convergence of voice and data networks
 2000s Emergence of wireless

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 5
Communication Technology and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Category Frequencies Wavelengths

Infrared To 4 x 1014 Hz 0.0000007 meters

Microwaves To 3 x 1011 Hz 0.004 meters

Radio waves Below 3 x 109 Hz 0.100 meters

[See http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html ]

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 6
Wire Pairs for Full Interconnection

Number of wire pairs


[N is number of phones]

(N) * (N – 1)
---------------
2

e.g., 4 phones
(4) * (4 – 1)
---------------- = 6 pairs
2

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 7
Wire Pairs for Full Interconnection

 Using wire pairs, 1,000 phones


would require 499,500 connections!

Calculation: (1,000) x (999)


------------------ = 499,500
2

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 8
Alternative to Paired Wires
between Every Telephone

 Subscribers [customer]
 Switchboard at central office (phone company)

 Each subscriber phone is terminated at a


switchboard
 Operator uses a patch cord to connect between
subscriber phones

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 9
Alternative to Paired Wires
between Every Telephone

Subscribers
1000 Subscribers Subscribers
need 1000 wire pairs
[1 pair/phone]
to connect to CO.

CO w/ Switchboard

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 10
Voice Bandwidths

Category Frequencies

Human speech 100 – 7,000 Hz

Voice band 300 – 3,400 Hz

Adopted by telephone companies

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 11
Wire Sharing
“Carrying more than one conversation over a
single wire pair at the same time”

 Why?
 Consumer demand was increasing pressure for more
wiring between COs
Intended to offset construction and maintenance costs

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 12
Wire Sharing Methods
 FDM
 Frequency division multiplexing
 First successful wire-sharing technique
 Uses analog signaling techniques
 TDM
 time Division Multiplexing
 Uses digital signaling techniques
 Statistical TDM
 Version of time division multiplexing over a packet-switched network
 Fills-in transmission gaps with data
 WDM
 Wave division multiplexing
 1 optical strand can carry 129,024 conversations
 DWDM
 Dense wave division multiplexing
 1 optical strand can carry more than 33 million simultaneous phone calls!

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 13
Converting Analog to Digital
Signals
 Why?
 Required for signals transmitted over digital systems
 TDM equipment was smaller, less expensive than
FDM for the same capabilities

 How?
 PCM—Pulse Code Modulation
 Developed by AT&T’s Bell Labs in the 1930s

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 14
Converting Digital to Analog
Signals
 Why?
 Need to convert computer digital bits for
transmission over analog voice circuits

 How?
 Modem—modulator/demodulator
 Deployed by AT&T in 1958

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 15
Analog versus Digital Signaling–
Some Differences
 Analog
 Used by FDM
 If affected by noise, cannot be fully restored to their
original state

 Digital
 Used by TDM
 If affected by noise, original signal can be restored in
most cases

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 16
Standards and Architectural Models
in the Design of Networks
Definitions:
 De facto (“By fact”) established by popular use
(e.g., TCP/IP computer interconnection protocols)

 De jure (“By right”) established by standards organizations


and expert committees
(e.g., Ethernet designated 802.3 by IEEE)

 Proprietary Company-based standards


(e.g., Microsoft Windows operating system)

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 17
Communications—Criteria for
Selecting a Delivery Method
 Speed of delivery
 Reliability of service
 Security in transit
 Cost
 Convenience
 Availability
 Ease of use

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 18
ARPANET
 Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (funded by DOD)
 Began operating in 1969
 First packet-switched network
(focused on data versus voice comms)
 Originally connected computers
at Stanford and UCLA

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 19
ARPANET—Network Pioneers
 Len Kleinrock (when a PhD student at MIT)
 Described a network wherein
 Data is divided into small packets
 Packets take alternate routes through the network, avoiding traffic,
congestion, and inoperative links

 Paul Baran (USAF-sponsored RAND researcher)


 Worked on creating data networks robust enough to continue
operating despite outages
 Described using message blocks that could be independently
routed to avoid any single point of outage

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 20
Packet Data Network (PDN)
versus Regular Telephone Network
“Computer communications are sporadic, occurring
in bursts of activity . . .”

 Regular telephone network


 Charges for call distance and call length

 PDN
 Charges only for actual data transmitted
 Users share connection costs—idle moments are made
available to other users
 Less expensive for sending business data

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 21
Convergence of Voice and Packet
Networks—1990s
Why converge?

 Business requirements changed!


 Originally data was mostly text or binary
 Did not require steady stream delivery

 Digital voice/digital audio data changed everything!


 Very large number of bits
 Occurs in real-time, requiring delivery “on the fly”
 Bit stream must be acted on continuously

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 22
Reference Model Architectures—
“Blueprints” for Grouping Network Functions
 OSI Open Systems Interconnection
 “De jure” standard
 Networks have 7 distinct functional groups (layers)

 TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol


over Internet Protocol
 “De facto” standard
 Networks have 5 distinct functional groups (layers)

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 23
Reference Model Architectures—
2 Standards for Grouping Network Functions
“de jure” “de facto”

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 24
Reference Model Concept—
“Encapsulation” [1 of 5]
 Each network layer should operate without
knowing what is going on in any other layer
 Adjacent layers need to pass data between them
according to the model protocols

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 25
Reference Model Concept—
“Encapsulation” [2 of 5]
 Each network layer should operate without
knowing what is going on in any other layer
 Adjacent layers need to pass data between them
according to the model protocols

Layer 4 Header is
added to original data,
“encapsulating” it

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 26
Reference Model Concept—
“Encapsulation” [3 of 5]
 Each network layer should operate without
knowing what is going on in any other layer
 Adjacent layers need to pass data between them
according to the model protocols

Layer 3 Header is
added to packet

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 27
Reference Model Concept—
“Encapsulation” [4 of 5]
 Each network layer should operate without
knowing what is going on in any other layer
 Adjacent layers need to pass data between them
according to the model protocols

Layer 2
Header and Trailer
are added to packet

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 28
Reference Model Concept—
“Encapsulation” [5 of 5]
 Each network layer should operate without
knowing what is going on in any other layer
 Adjacent layers need to pass data between them
according to the model protocols

Layer 1
Used to carry packets
without affecting them

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 29
Network Types—
Categories by Geographic Span
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 Confined to office, building or, small cluster of buildings

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)


 Limited to a neighborhood or city

 WAN (Wide Area Network)


 Large geographic region, an entire state,
or several states
 Global Area Network
 Network that spans the world

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 30
Network Types—
Wireless Categories
 WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network)

 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

 WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Network)

 Bluetooth Networks
 Piconet
 Scatternet

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 31
Network Types—
Determining Factors for Distance
 Maximum achievable distances
determined by
 Protocols for communications
 Media (wired and wireless)
 Signal impairment considerations
 Power requirements and limitations

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 32
What is a network?
“A hardware and software communications
system formed by the interconnection of
three or more devices”

 Devices may include:


 Telephones
 PCs
 Routers
 Other communications devices

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 33
Why use a network?
“Historically, the first computer networks
grew out of the need
to utilize mainframe computers economically.”

 Allow multiple devices to communicate concurrently


 Allow communications to proceed at the highest
achievable speed
 Reduce cost associated with the interconnections!

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 34
Network Design Considerations
 MANs/WANs usually are dependent on
public access carriers
 Limited to speeds/media they make available

 LANs are privately owned, not dependent on,


public access carriers
 Limited only by available technology

 Wireless networks are subject to wireless


spectrum limits set by FCC

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 35
Networks Based on ARPANET
 CSNET (Computer Science Network)

 NSFNET (National Science Foundation)

 USENET (AT&T Unix-based network)

 BITNET (system linking academic mainframes)

Chapter 1 Principles of Computer Networks and


Communications 36

Вам также может понравиться