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CLASSES OF VERTEBRATES: BODY SYTEMS

Comparative Analysis
HELIUM
Quick Review
Animal classes are not like the classes people have at school!
An animal class is made up of animals that are all alike in
important ways. Scientists have grouped animals into classes to
make it easier to study them.
There are many different animal classes and every animal in the
world belongs to one of them. The five most well known classes of
vertebrates (animals with backbones) are mammals, birds, fish,
reptiles, amphibians. They are all part of the phylum chordata -- I
remember "chordata" by thinking of spinal chord.
Mammal Amphibian Reptile Bird Fish
Deer Frog Frog Lizard Parrot Goldfish
Hamster Salamander Crocodile Owl Tuna
Tuna
Elephant Diplocaulus Turtle
Turtle Crane Catfish
Pilandok Caecilian Snake Toucan Mackerel
Lemur Newts Dinosaur Penguin Guppy
Penguin
DIFFERENT BODY SYSTEMS

Digestive System Reproductive System


Circulatory System Endocrine System
Nervous System
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Mammalian Reproduction
Most mammals are viviparous, giving birth to live
young. However, the five species of monotreme,
the platypuses and the echidnas, lay eggs. The
monotremes have a sex determination system different
from that of most other mammals. In particular, the sex
chromosomes of a platypus are more like those of a
chicken than those of a therian mammal.
Male placental mammals

The mammalian male reproductive system contains two


main divisions, the penis and the testicles, the latter of
which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of
these organs are outside the abdominal cavity, but they
can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other
animals.
Female placentals

The mammalian female reproductive system likewise contains


two main divisions: the vagina and uterus, which act as the
receptacle for the sperm, and the ovaries, which produce the
female's ova. All of these parts are always internal. The vagina
is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus
is attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain
intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through
the fallopian tube into the uterus.
ELEPHANT (Mammal)
Elephants and their reproductive
cycles are complex. They have large
reproductive tracts, long
pregnancies, produce large calves
that require a long developmental
period and reproduce infrequently
with the inter-calf interval as long
as 5 years.
Male Reproductive System

Unusual for mammals, the


testicles of elephants are located
within the body, close to the kidneys.
The male’s reproductive tract is about
2 meters long. Male elephants, called
bulls, begin producing sperm
between 10 and 15 years of age,
sometimes even earlier in zoos.
o
Female Reproductive System
A cycling female, or cow, may vocalize and show
greater interest and enthusiasm for bulls. Bulls will
test the cow’s readiness to breed by performing a
flemen behavior, which uses his trunk to bring urine
samples to the veromonasal receptors in the roof of
the mouth. These sensory receptors send chemical
signals to the elephant’s brain telling him if the female
is ready to breed. Courtship may last from 1 hour to 4
days where the bull will stay near the cow and guard
her from other bulls while he occasionally mates with
her.
After 1 to 3 days, the cow will no longer be
receptive to breeding or be capable of
conceiving. Typically, wild cows will begin
reproducing at 12-14 years of age, sometimes
earlier in zoos. The interval between calves
can be about 5 years but this is highly variable
based on the availability of food, the presence
of a suckling calf and the age of the cow.
The Reproduction Process
Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding,
where they follow oestrous females and defend them from
other males. Most mate-guarding is done by musth males, and
females actively seek to be guarded by them, particularly older
ones. Thus these bulls have more reproductive success. Musth
appears to signal to females the condition of the male, as weak
or injured males do not have normal musths. For young
females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so
her relatives stay nearby to provide support and reassurance.
During copulation, the male lays his trunk over the female's
back. The penis is very mobile, being able to move
independently of the pelvis. Prior to mounting, it curves
forward and upward. Copulation lasts about 45 seconds and
does not involve pelvic thrusting or ejaculatory pause.
Amphibian Reproduction
Most amphibians exhibit external fertilization of eggs,
typically within the water, though some amphibians
such as caecilians have internal fertilization. All have
paired, internal gonads, connected by ducts to the
cloaca.
FROG (Amphibian)

The frog is a unisexual animal with


easy sexual dimorphism. Females are
smaller than males of the same age.
The abdomen of male frog is small and
thin. Vocal cords are present in a male.
Reproductive system of frog is responsible
for producing gametes which are released
in water for fertilization.
Similarities between human and frog's
system are limited to the fact that both
possess paired testes/ovary for gamete
production.
Male Reproductive System
In both the sexes of frog, each gonad remains
attached to the kidney of same side. In human
special ligaments attach the gonads to body wall. In
males, testes is not abdominal in location; these are
present in scrotal sac.
In frogs, testes delivers sperms inside Bidder's
canal running through kidney. The sperms exit
testes through ureter which is a common
urinogenital duct: ureter delivers sperms in cloaca.
Female Reproductive System

In female frogs, ovaries shed the


mature eggs in coelomic cavity. Eggs enter
oviducal funnel to reach oviduct. Eggs
enter cloaca through oviducts of both
sides.
In breeding season, frogs perform a false
copulation: the act of amplexus so that both
the sexes release huge number of gametes
together in water. Gametes come out through
cloacal aperture.
Frog's larvae are aquatic, gill breathing.
Metamorphosis takes place in tadpoles when
the frog becomes lung breathing and terrestrial.
Reproductive System of Frog and Human Differs:
• Most importantly in male human, ureter is not common urinogenital
tract though the urethra is. Sperms from testes travels to urethra
along vas deferens.
• In female, there is no common urinogenital tract at all. The two
oviducts join to form a triangular organ called uterus, where an
embryo can grow.
• Fertilization in human is internal, takes place inside oviduct (termed
fallopian tube). Sperms are transferred directly in female genital
tract, through vagina.
• There is no breeding season in human, but there is lunar cyclical
period in females. Every month ovulation takes place. Generally only
one ovum is released per menstrual cycle.
• Humans are mammals, so females give birth to young ones.
• Accessory reproductive glands are present in human males and
Reptilian Reproduction

Reptiles are almost all sexually dimorphic, and exhibit internal


fertilization through the cloaca. Some reptiles lay eggs while
others are viviparous (animals that deliver live young).
Reproductive organs are found within the cloaca of reptiles.
Most male reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually
retracted or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and
crocodilians, the male has a single median penis-like organ,
while male snakes and lizards each possess a pair of penis-like
organs.
Turtle (Reptile)
The breeding process of sea turtles is fascinating.
It all begins when they migrate thousands of
miles to the breeding sites, to find a partner for
mating. Once a male find a female candidate, the
former courtship her by maintaining physical
contact with the flippers or slightly biting the
neck and the tail. If she does not accept it, then
she submerges and tries to flee, but if she agrees,
the male climbs on the back of the partner’s shell
and holds it with its front claws to perform the
sexual intercourse. This action is carried out
underwater very close to the surface, or at the
surface.
Turtles, and humans alike, reproduce sexually. The turtle
reproductive system in females consists of the ovaries, the
oviduct and the cloaca and in males, the testes, the
epididymis, the vas deferens, a suspensory ligament (tissues
that suspend an organ) and a penis. The cloaca is a hole at
the end of the digestive tract used to dispense of feces and
urine. It is also the equivalent of the vagina in women and
some turtles, mainly aquatic, breath through it. In males,
the penis comes out of the cloaca into the female cloaca
when mating. The shells have also evolved to protect the
turtle and still have a shape which lets the turtle mate. Since
the female is always at the bottom, the male's plastron
(bottom of the shell) has a concave shape in order for the
penis to reach the cloaca. To finish off, turtle mating, if the
female's egg is fertilized, results in, with some exceptions of
course, the female laying an average of a 100 to 200 eggs.
Mating Activity

• For most species, courtship activity usually


occurs several weeks before the nesting season.
• Two or more males may court a single female.
• Male sea turtles of all species except
leatherbacks have enlarged claws on their front
flippers. These help grasp the shells of the
females during mating.
• Fertilization is internal. Copulation takes place in
the water, just offshore.
Bird Reproduction

Male and female birds have a cloaca, an opening through which


eggs, sperm, and wastes pass. Intercourse is performed by pressing
the lips of the cloacae together, which is sometimes known
as intromittent organ which is known as a phallus that
is analogous to the mammals' penis. The female lays amniotic eggs
in which the young fetus continues to develop after it leaves the
female's body. Unlike most vertebrates female birds typically have
only one functional ovary and oviduct. As a group, birds, like
mammals, are noted for their high level of parental care.
PENGUIN (Bird)
Like most seabirds, penguins tend to be long-
lived. They may take three to eight years to
reach sexual maturity.
With some of the smaller species, breeding
may begin at three to four years, but most larger
species are not accomplished breeders until
much later. On average, breeding does not begin
until the fifth year, and a few males do not
breed until the eighth year.
Perpetuating the species is a
paramount issue for any animal, and
penguins are no exception. Although
they cannot fly, they are still birds that
reproduce laying eggs, only that the
incubation time, the number of eggs and
the care devoted to them are different
from the habits of the flying birds.
• At the age of 3-8 years old is when
Penguins mate.
• They mate for life.
• To get to each others attention they
mimic each to show interest.
• They lay eggs once conceptions is
successful.
Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive tract is made


up of four principal parts: the testes, the
epididymis, the ductus deferens and the
sperm storage location near the cloaca.
Female Reproductive System

The basic female reproductive tract


includes the ovary, the magnum, the
uterus, the uterovaginal junction, and
the oviduct.
Fish Reproduction

Fish exhibit a wide range of different reproductive strategies. Most fish


however are oviparous and exhibit external fertilization. In this
process, females use their cloaca to release large quantities of their
gametes, called spawn into the water and one or more males release
"milt", a white fluid containing many sperm over the unfertilized eggs.
Other species of fish are oviparous and have internal fertilization aided
by pelvic or anal fins that are modified into an intromittent
organ analogous to the human penis. Fish gonads are typically pairs of
either ovaries or testes. Most fish are sexually dimorphic but some
species are hermaphroditic or unisexual.
TUNA (Fish)
The Albacore tuna has a very unique
way of reproduction. First, spawning must
occur. Spawning is basically when the
eggs or sperm are released into the
aquatic habitat for reproduction to occur.
There are both female and male tuna, so
the Albacore tuna can be considered a
dioecious species.
For the Albacore tuna, spawning
usually takes place from March to July,
but in some cases spawning can last as
long as September. The peak of the
spawning period usually occurs in the first
two months, March and April. Also, other
evidence has shown that this species may
spawn more than once a year.
Elephant Reproductive System Frog
-Viviparous -Exhibit external fertilization.
-Large reproductive tracts -Gonad remains attached to
-Male has penis and testicle. kidney of same side.
-Female has vagina and All have gamete -Male has testicle and cloaca
uterus. – producing but don’t have penis.
organs or
gonads.
Turtle Tuna
-Exhibit internal fertilization -Oviparous and exhibit
through cloaca. external fertilization.
-Copulation takes place in -Spawning occurs
the water, just offshore. Penguin
-Male doesn’t have penis but
cloaca.
-Female birds typically have
only one functional ovary
and oviduct.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
ELEPHANT (Mammal)
The digestive system of the elephant is not
something special in structure. In fact, it is
very similar that of any ordinary mammal,
except in size and in the areas of the stomach
and the intestines. The other key components
of the digestive system, such as the liver and
the pancreas, are of the ordinary mammalian
type and are only distinguished by their large
size. It is by taking a look at the elephant's
digestive system that we can appreciate how
vital they are as a super-keystone species.
It begins with the mouth - The digestive
process begins with the entrance of food in the
mouth. They have a relatively small mouth for
the size of their body, which cannot be opened
widely. To aid in the initial digestive process,
there are well-developed salivary glands in the
mouth, along with the mucous glands present in
the short esophagus. Together they help to
lubricate the rough vegetation that an elephant
consumes in its diet.
• The stomach- The stomach is a simple sac
that is orientated almost vertically. Ironically,
the majority of the digestion doesn't take
place in the stomach, yet it acts as a storage
for the food eaten. From here, it is then
ushered into the amazingly large intestines of
the elephant-- they can stretch up to 19
meters.
• The intestines- The intestine is where
most of the digestion of the vegetative diet
takes place. At the point at which the small
intestine meets the large one, bacteria aids in
the fermentative digestion of the cellulose
(from the plants in the diet). This location is
called the caecum and is particularly rich in
blood vessels. The caecum is divided into
many smaller sacs and the products of
digestion are absorbed through its relatively
thin walls.
• The end of the process- Because the
elephant only digests and makes good use of
40% of its intake, the intestine is also key in
the formation of faeces and the efficient
absorption of water. The size of the faeces is
often used to determine the age of the
elephant as it retains the shape formed by the
walls of the rectum, indicating its size.
FROG (Amphibian)
Frogs belong to Amphibia class and subphylum
Vertebrata, which means that they are a class of
vertebrates that live on land, but breed in water. They are
a part of Anura order. The term Anura means 'without tail',
and this taxonomic group comprises frogs and toads. The
characteristic features of these amphibians include short
bodies, the absence of tail, long hind legs that allow them
to leap, webbed fingers and toes, and protruding eyes. The
anatomy of frogs has been of interest to humans due to
the striking similarities in the organ systems of frogs and
humans. Frogs have a single body cavity in the trunk.
Referred to as coelom, this body cavity houses all the
internal organs. Their head contains the brain, mouth,
eyes, ears, and nose.
Like humans, the digestive system of frogs consists of
the digestive tract, which in turn comprises organs such
as the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and cloaca. Accessory organs
and glands such as the tongue, teeth, salivary glands,
gastric glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder perform
functions that are essential for the process of digestion.
These organs work in tandem to digest or break down
the ingested food into smaller molecules or nutrients,
which are easier to absorb and assimilate. These
nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream, and utilized
by the cells and tissues of the body for carrying out the
vital body processes.
Mouth
The digestive process of frogs starts with ingestion, which involves
catching their prey (flies, spiders, worms, slugs, other insects, and
smaller animals that can fit into their mouth) with their sticky, cleft or
bilobed tongue, and swallowing it. The tip of the tongue is folded
backwards. Frogs don't have strong teeth like humans. They have two
sets of teeth in the buccal cavity. They use their maxillary teeth (located
in the upper jaw) for holding on to the prey. Their sticky tongue prevents
the prey from fleeing. Frogs mostly swallow their prey whole. This
process is referred to as deglutition. While doing so, they blink or close
their eyes, pushing them down through openings in the skull. This helps
to propel the food towards the esophagus. In the buccal cavity, the
tongue mixes the ingested food with saliva, which is secreted by the
salivary glands. Saliva helps in the conversion of starch to sugar. It must
be noted that some frogs don't have tongues, and they catch their prey
and place it in their mouth through their front limbs or legs.
Pharynx and Esophagus
After the food is moistened by the saliva, it
moves from the mouth into the pharynx.
Thereafter, it moves into the esophagus. As in
case of humans, an esophagus is a small tube
that is located in the anterior section of the
digestive tract. It connects the mouth to the
stomach, and acts as a passageway for food.
It pushes the food into the stomach, wherein
starts the process of breakdown of food into
a simpler form.
Stomach
At the end of the esophagus lies a muscular sac called
stomach. It performs the function of storing food. Enzymes
secreted by the gastric glands present in the walls of the
stomach facilitate the breakdown of food. Stomach acid
and other digestive fluid or enzymes facilitate the
breakdown of food. Thereafter, chyme (semi liquid mass of
partially digested food) moves along the digestive tract
through the process of peristalsis. Peristalsis involves
muscular contractions of the smooth muscle tissue in the
walls of organs of the digestive system. Between the
stomach and the small intestine lies an opening called
pylorus. The movement of food from the stomach into the
small intestine is regulated by pyloric sphincter valve.
Small Intestine and Accessory Organ

The absorption of nutrients takes place in the small


intestine, which is integral to the process of digestion. It is
supported or held in place by a fold of membranous tissue
called mesentery. This tissue prevents the movement of
the small intestine in the abdominal cavity. The partially
digested food moves into the small intestine, which is
divided into duodenum and ileum. Duodenum almost runs
parallel to the stomach, whereas the coiled section of the
small intestine is referred to as the ileum. In the small
intestine, bile and pancreatic juice aid in the process of
digestion.
Bile is a digestive fluid that is produced by the liver.
The largest organ present in the body cavity, the liver
comprises three lobes. Gallbladder is a small sac that
is located under the liver. It acts as a reservoir for
bile. Bile helps in the digestion of fat, whereas
proteins and carbohydrates are broken down into
simpler molecules by the enzymes (trypsin, lipase,
amylase, chymotrypsin, etc.) produced and secreted
by the pancreas. Bile and pancreatic juice flows
through the common bile duct into the small
intestine. After the absorption of nutrients, the
undigested food moves into the large intestine.
Large Intestine and Cloaca
Just like humans, the large intestine in
frogs also stores the undigested food. It
performs the function of absorbing
water from the food residue. The solid
waste moves towards the cloaca. Water
or liquid waste moves to the urinary
bladder. Solid as well as liquid waste is
expelled out of the body through the
cloacal opening.
TURTLE (Reptile)
Turtles eat food, drink water, and breathe air with their
mouth. First, the esophagus pushes the food through and
into the stomach. The stomach contains powerful acids
and digestive enzymes to decompose the food. The walls
of the stomach are made of smooth and strong muscle
that help churn the food. Then, the liver produces bile
and transfers it to the gall bladder. Then the gall bladder
transfers the bile to the small intestine. As the food is
entering the small intestine, the pancreas, releases
digestive enzymes into the small intestine. After, the food
travels to the large intestine, and the food becomes a
"waste product" of the digestive system. Lastly, the waste
product exits from the Turtle's anus.
Mouth: Cavity inside the skull. Food, water, and air
enter the body through the mouth.
Esophagus: Long, narrow tube that connects the
mouth with the stomach.
Liver: Viscera that produces bile, bile helps
digestion.
Stomach: Tubular digestive organ, which receives
food to be digested.
Gall Bladder: The small sac-shaped organ beneath
the liver. It holds and releases bile from the liver
into the small intestine.
Pancreas: A large gland behind the stomach that
produces digestive enzymes.
Small Intestine: Long, coiled tubed connected to
the large intestine behind the stomach, in which
most of the digestion and food absorption take
place.
Spleen: Organ of the circulatory system where
impurities in the blood are destroyed.
Large Intestine: Connected to the small
intestine in front of the rectum. Also known as
colon, which reabsorbs water from food.
Anus: An opening in which solid waste matter
leaves the body.
PENGUIN (Bird)
• Food first enters the oral cavity. This is the "mouth" of the
penguin and it is the initial site where food begins its digestion.
However, very little digestion occurs in the oral cavity --
probably none. There are, however, mucous glands that secrete
mucus, aiding the passage of food. The oral cavity assumes a
role of connecting the outside world to the esophagus, which is
a conduit from the oral cavity to the crop. The esophagus is a
tube-like structure that has a muscular wall. Through
movements known as peristalsis, wave-like contractions propel
food from the oral cavity into the crop where food sits if it is to
be regurgitated or if the stomach is full. It is my understanding
that the crop is merely a diverticulation (distended pocket) of
the esophagus and may not have any specialized functions.
Food leaving the crop either reverses the esophagus
and out the oral cavity or it passes through the
proventriculus. it secretes digestive enzymes that allow
digestion of fish and crustaceans to begin. The
proventriculus is the first part of the penguin "stomach."
The second part of the penguin "stomach" is the gizzard.
it grinds and pulverizes fish and crustaceans into smaller
components that are more easily digested by penguins.
The gizzard has a thick muscular wall (this is necessary to
produce the contractions which grind up food). The
internal surface of the gizzard is similar to sandpaper
since it contains a grainy keratinous substance known as
koilin. Histologically, this is known as the cutica gastrica.
Once partially digested food exits the gizzard it
encounters secretions of the liver and the pancreas. The
liver, located inferolateral to the heart, produces and
secretes bile, a collection of acids, pigments and
cholesterol that are vital to the digestion and absorption of
fat. To curb the acidity, the pancreas will secrete sodium
bicarbonate to neutralize acid. This all occurs once
partially digested food enters the intestines. Food travels
along this curvy organ while it is being slowly digested and
absorbed. When material can no longer be absorbed, it is
delivered to the cloaca of the penguin. Here the feces
meets up with uric acid secreted by the kidneys. The
contents are expelled at the convenience of the penguin.
A penguin’s food enters through its mouth,
travels through the esophagus, then is stored
in the crop where it is softened, it then travels
through the proventriculus where it is broken
down chemically, then to the gizzard where is
smashed by strong buscles and small pieces of
gravel, it is then broken down throughout the
intestines and exits through the anus.
TUNA (Fish)
Like the human digestive system, the tuna's
digestive system also helps break down food. It's
system has an esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver,
pyloric caeca, and a pancreas. Tuna have a lot of
the same organs as humans do in their digestive
systems and they also function the same way, but
fish have a pyloric caeca that aids in food digesting
and absorption. Another difference would be in the
intestines. Plant eating fish have longer intestines
and meat eating fish have shorter ones. The tuna is
a meat eating fish so it has shorter intestines.
Elephant Digestive System Frog
-Digestive organs are huge. -Doesn’t have strong teeth
-Areas of stomach and but has sticky, cleft or
intestines are different. bilobed tongue folded
All consist of
-Intestines that can stretch backward.
digestive tract like
up to 19 meters. mouth, stomach,
small and large
intestines and
Turtle accessory organs. Tuna
-Has pyrolic caeca that aids
-Nothing special except for in food digesting and
its small organs. absorption.
Penguin -Shorter intestines.
-Food is stored in crop where
it is softened.
-Proventiculus where food is
broken down chemically.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
ELEPHANT (Mammal)
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FROG (Amphibian)
Frog has a highly developed
nervous system and the nervous
system of a frog is divisible into:
Central nervous system ,
Peripheral nervous system and
Autonomic nervous system
Central Nervous System of a Frog

Frog central nervous system of a frog is


made up of two organs, the brain and
spinal cord.Brain is contained in a bony
structure known as brain box or cranium
and protects it from the external shocks.
Brain of frog consists of a pair of occipital
condyles.
The frog's brain is divisible into three parts namely:

• Fore-brain: It consists of olfactory lobes, a pair of cerebral


hemispheres, and unpaired diencephalon. Olfactory lobe of
frog's brain controls the sense of smell.
• Mid-brain: The mid-brain o fthe frog is consists of a pair of
optic lobes. Optic lobes are invloved in the frog's vision.
• Hind-brain: Hind-brain o fthe frog consists of cerebellum and
medulla oblongata. Cerebellum helps to maintain the balance
and equilibrium of the frog. The medulla oblongata passes
out via the foramen magnum and continues into the spinal
cord of the frog up to the tip of its trunk, which is contained
in the vertebral column. Medulla oblongata helps in the
regulation of respiration, digestion, and other automatic
functions. Cerebellum also controls the muscular
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system of a frog comprises of cranial
and spinal nerves. Ten pair of cranial nerves are present in
the frog (as compared to twelve pairs present in human)
and it arises from the brain and innervate to the different
parts of body. Cranial nerves are involved in passing the
information from outside to the brain. Frog conatins 10 pairs
of spinal nerves (as compared to 30 pairs present in humans)
that rise from the spinal cord and gets distributed to the
different parts of body. Spinal nerves of frog appear as white
in color and are thread-like structures that emerge between
the vertebrae and are located along the dorsal wall of body
cavity. Spinal nerves functions in passing information from
the extremities to brain through spinal cord.
Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic nervous system of a


frog is made up of sympathetic and
parasympathetic chains of ganglia.
TURTLE (Reptile)
The nervous system of the sea turtle is composed of the
brain, nerves and spinal cord. In addition, specialized cells
called neurons are the signal transmitters throughout the
system. The brain is the center of a sea turtle's nervous
system and it is there that the impulses carried by the
nerves from the sensory organs are processed. Although
the brain of turtles is more advanced than an amphibian's
it is primitive in regards to birds and mammals. The spinal
cord of the turtle extends down it's back and is protected
by the carapace vertebrae. It is through the spinal cord
that the information is carried to and from the brain.
Turtles exhibit all the same senses as most organisms but
the sense of smell is most advanced. Sea turtles even have
the ability to smell underwater.
PENGUIN (Bird)

The penguin has a brain


that sends out messages to
the body for it to move.
The main parts are the
nerves, spinal cord, and brain.
Penguins have a three part brain,
composed of a section for the bird's olfaction,
optics, and hearing.

Cladisticly new in bird brains is


the hyperstriatum. This section is associated
with the intelligence of the bird, and smarter
birds will have larger hyperstriatums.
TUNA (Fish)

The nervous system of trout and


salmon, all bony fish, share characteristics
common to many other animals. Some
characteristics are unique. Check out this
diagram. What makes the nervous system
of fish unique? Similar?
Fish have highly developed nervous systems organized
around a brain. Fish brains have several clearly visible parts.
The most anterior parts of a fish’s brain are the olfactory
bulbs. These are connected to the two lobes of the cerebrum
by stalks. In fish the cerebrum is primarily involved with the
sense of smell. It also seems to control behaviors such as
taking care of the young and exploring the environment. The
optic lobes process information from the eyes. The
cerebellum coordinates body movements and the medulla
controls internal organ functions and maintains balance.
Posterior to the brain is the spinal cord, which is the hollow
dorsal nerve cord that characterizes chordates. The spinal
cord is enclosed and protected by the vertebral column.
Between each set of vertebrae, a pair of spinal nerves exits
the cord and connects to the internal organs and muscles.
Most fish have superbly designed sense organs. Fish
like trout and salmon, which are active in the daylight,
have well-developed eyes and color vision nearly equal
to the average human. They also have extraordinary
senses of taste and smell. Chemo receptors (chemo-
means chemical) are located all over the head and much
of the body surface. Salmon can distinguish between the
odor of their own home stream and that of another
stream while they are still far out at sea. Most fish have
ears inside their heads, but they do not hear well.
However, a series of pores connected to canals beneath
the skin cover the head and the sides of their body. This
system, called the lateral line system, detects the motion.
Some fish-electric eels, catfish, and sharks-can detect
electricity.
Elephant Nervous System Frog
-Larger and more convulated -Divided into 3 different
cerebrum. This signifies parts of nervous system:
Spinal cord is found in all
higher level of cognitive vertebrates, and is part of Central, Peripheral, and
abilities in the former class the central system and Autonomic Nervous System,
acts as the brain's
animals. "messenger", relaying just like humans.
decisions that the brain
makes to the muscles that
correspond to the
"message". Tuna
Turtle
-Do not have neuro-
-Has an advanced nervous
physiological capacity for a
system compared to
conscious awareness of pain.
amphibians.
Penguin -Differs slightly from other
-Has twelve pairs of cranial
-The brain is dominated by due to underwater
nerves.
the middle of the cerebral adaptation.
hemisphere which lacks
learning capacity so it tends
to be instinctive.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
ELEPHANT (Mammal)

Because of the large body size of


the elephants, the skeleton must be
very large and strong to support the
body weight. The whole skeleton
weight is approximately 16.5 percent
of body weight.
Skull
The elephant skull is large but light weight because of the
pneumatic bone which has air cavities making it appear like
a honey comb or sponge on cut section.. Pneumatization of
the bones of the skull occurs the elephant is 3-4 year old.
The big skull allows strong attachment of muscles
supporting the movements of the trunk, ear and jaw, and
houses various organs especially the brain, eyes, ears, tusks,
and upper part of respiratory and digestive tracts. The
largest cavity in the skull contains the brain. Molar teeth are
in the maxillary and mandiblar bones and the tusks alveolar
sockets of the maxillary bones. The skull structure is not
different between genders but the skulls of young elephants
are more dorally ventrally flattened than those of adult
elephants.
Vertebrae
The vertebral column of the Asian
elephants are divided into basic five regions,
cervical (7), thoracic (19-20), lumbar (4-5),
sacral (4-5) and coccygial or caudal (24-33),
the parentheses is a numbers of each region.
The vertebral column is a curved linear, arch-
like structure in Asian elephants, but is more
nearly a straight horizontal line in African
elephants. The movement of elephant
vertebrae is limited because of fixed and
tightened vertebral junctions.
Ribs and Sternum
The numberof ribs is 19-20 pairs depending on the
subspecies for the Asian elephants, and 21 pairs for
African elephants. The first six pairs of ribs are sternal ribs,
the next nine pairs are asternal ribs and last four or so pair
of ribs are true floating ribs in the Asian elephants.

Sternum are flat cartilages and bones which lay in the


pectoral position and serve as points of attachment for
ribs and pectoral muscles, whileprotecting the organs in
the thoracic cavity.
FROG (Amphibian)
• Skeleton of a frog: web-footed amphibian which lives near lakes and
ponds. Moves by swimming and jumping.
• Maxillary: bony part of the jaw.
• Orbital cavity: skull cavity that contains the eye.
• Quadratojugal: cheek bone.
• Prootic: bones forming the auditory region.
• Phalange: each of the small bones forming the fingers.
• Occipital lateral: occipital lateral bone.
• Carpus: each of the bones forming the wrist.
• Metacarpus: each of the bones forming the part of the hand
between the fingers and the wrist.
• Urostyle: adaptation of one or several vertebrae, stretching the
hindquarters.
• Ilium: projecting hip bone.
• Ischium: one of three bones forming the ilium.
• Calcaneum: projecting heel bone.
• Talus: bone jointed with the leg bones.
• Phalanges: each of the bones forming the toes.
• Metatarsus: each of the bones forming the part of the
foot between the toes and the heel.
• Tarsus: each of the bones forming the heel.
• Femur: thigh bone.
• Tibiofibula: leg bone.
• Sacral vertebra: vertebra of the sacrum.
• Vertebra: each of the bones forming the spinal column.
• Humerus: arm bone.
• Radio-ulna: forearm bone.
• Scapular: shoulder bone.
• Pterygoid: one of the bones of the
palate, forming the root of the mouth.
• Skull: bony case of the brain.
TURTLE (Reptile)
This CT (computed tomography) scan of an
immature ridley turtle shows the three parts of
the skeleton: the skull, axial, and appendicular
skeletons and the spatial relationships of the
bones. Cartilage (at the ends of many bones) is
not detected by this imaging technique so bones
appear loosely articulated. The arrangement of
the forelimbs is such that the shoulder joint is
inside the shell. The elbow flexes so the forearm
moves from an anterolateral position to a medial
position. Lines crossing the posterior skull and
carapace are image processing artifacts.
Loggerhead skull (ventral) showing
parts of the ceratohyal or the body of the
hyoid, and paired hyoid processes of the
hyoid apparatus. Two cartilaginous hyoid
processes are lost in skull preparation.
Hyoid bones are loose in the prepared skull
but are suspended between and behind
the lower jaws in life. The hyoid apparatus
supports the tongue and glottis and serves
as muscle attachment sites for some of the
throat muscles. Part of the atlas (ventral
cervical vertebra 1) is resting on the
occipital part of the skull, posterior to the
hyoid apparatus.
Lateral view of the cervical
vertebrae from an adult green
turtle. Each vertebra is composed
of a ventral body and a dorsal
arch. The ventral part of the atlas
is missing from this series. The
atlas articulates with the occipital
condyle at the back of the skull.
C7 articulates with the cervical
vertebra fused to the carapace.
The sacral and caudal vertebrae of
an adult male green turtle. The large
dorsal and lateral processes are the
sites of attachments for the muscles
that move the prehensile tail of
mature males. S: sacral The lateral
extensions of the sacral vertebrae
are formed by rib-like processes that
articulate with the ilium.
Cleared and stained hatchling
loggerheads. (Above) Dorsal view
with carapace removed showing
vertebral regions and the level of
ossification at the time of hatching.
(Below) Dorsal view showing ribs,
vertebrae and initial dermal bone
hypertrophy along the ribs as the
carapace develops. The plastron
was removed in this specimen.
Ventral view of the carapace showing
the arrangement of the ribs and
vertebral bodies. The vertebral arch is
incorporated into the vertebral (neural)
bones of the carapace and hence, is not
seen in this view. The spinal cord travels
in the space formed between the neural
bones and the vertebral bodies.
The scutes are keratinous
epidermal structures that grow
above the carapace bones.
Scutes grow two ways. They
increase in size (area) at their
margins. The entire scute can
increase in thickness.
Skeletons of flippers (left
and right) shown in dorsal
view. Note the flat wide wrist
and the elongated digits that
form the flipper blade.
PENGUIN (Bird)
The skeletal system is the basis of support for
penguins. It binds muscles together and it provides
protection for the internal organs. It allows
penguins to stand upright and prevents them,
basically, from becoming a ball of mush. Penguin
skeletons are evolutionarily designed for flight,
despite the fact that penguins don't fly. However,
penguin bones are slightly more dense than the
average avian skeleton. And if you've been to the
histology section, you know that the skeleton is a
living and dynamic system.
The image on the right is obviously the skull of
a penguin -- a King penguin to be exact. There are
several features you should know about the basic
penguin skull, and they are all easily visible on this
picture. What you know as the bill or "mandible" is
really composed of two separate portions. One is
connected directly to the premaxilla; this is known
as the maxillary process. The inferior part of the
mandible is known as the dentary. Contained
within the maxillary process is the nasal aperture;
this is the site through which scents and air enter
the olfactory system of the penguin.
The cranium contains one of
the more important organs of the
penguin: the brain, the
coordinating center of the
penguin. Caudal to the skull are
the cervical vertebrae. Cervical
vertebrae do not directly
articulate with the base of the
skull, however.
They are united via several ligaments,
which are dense, tough connective tissue.
There are several cervical vertebrae; other
than the first, each vertebra articulates with
a vertebra above and below it. The cervical
vertebrae quickly change morphology and
become known as the thoracic vertebrae.
Thoracic refers to the thorax or chest. This is
where the "rib cage" begins. The head of
each rib articulates with a thoracic vertebra.
The numerous ribs form a protective shield
for the internal organs.
The most elaborate thoracic bone is the most ventral:
the sternum and keel. Note that this bone is unusually
large. The pectoralis muscles attach to the keel of the
sternum and extend to the humerus of the upper limb.
Why is this sternum so large? Birds fly, and in order to fly,
they need particularly large and powerful pectoralis
muscles. In the case of penguins, they do not fly; however,
they do swim and also require large pectoralis muscles.
Sterna and keels of penguins are large as well. The
pectoralis is the primary depressor muscle, and it runs
ventromedially to the keel from the humerus. The primary
elevator of the penguin is the supracoracoideus which runs
dorsomedially from the humerus to the articulation of the
clavicle and the coracoid bone. (These muscles are
analogous to the pectoralis major and the latissiums dorsi
in human beings.) In penguins, this entire "flight" structure
is known as the pectoral girdle.
The limbs of the penguin are similar in skeletal
structure, blood supply and muscular
compartmentalization. Each of the extremities (limbs) is
composed of a singular bone (humerus=upper limb;
femur=lower limb) proximally, two intermediate bones
(radius and ulna=upper limb; tibiotarsus and
fibular=lower limb), metacarpals (upper limb) or
metatarsals (lower limb) and phalanges distally. In
penguins, one cannot usually see the femur (thigh)
since it is buried below the feathers. The last structure
is the pubis. The pubis of a penguin is an interesting
structure when it is compared to the pubis of a
dinosaur. That of the penguin points toward the head;
that of the dinosaur points to the tail. This evolutionary
change seen in birds (and some advanced dinosaurs) is
called the reverse pubis.
TUNA (Fish)
The multiple bones of a bluefin tuna head

Skull of a bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus, Scombridae)

Despite the more than 200 bones in the head, bluefin tuna is
not the acanthomorph with the most complex skull anatomy.
The skull of the remoras (Echeneidae), with a dorsal fin
transformed in a sucker and extending onto the head, or the
asymmetrical skull of flatfish (pleuronectiformes), or the
flattened skull of a monkfish (Lophius piscatorius, Lophiidae) are
few examples of higly modified skulls. But, because of their size,
the bones of the skull of a bluefin tuna are good tools to learn
to identify bony structures.
The different ostéologic layers, from
the most superficial bones to intern
ones, are here exposed, as they appear
during an osteologic dissection.
Superficial Dermal Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
Splanchnocranium
Gill Arches
Neurocranium
Elephant Skeletal System Frog
-The skeletons are large -Frogs don’t have ribs
enough to support its weight -Its pelvis can slide up and
with approximate of 16.5% All possess down its spine which may
of body weight. internal skeleton help it jump.
made of bone -It has skull but no neck.
(backbone or
spinal column).
Turtle Tuna
-The scutes that are -Bony fish
keratinous epidermal -Endoskeleton is entirely
structures that grow above made of bone
the cavapace bones. Penguin -Exoskeleton is made up of
-two piece mandible cycloids (tiny bony plates)
-denser bones to overcome
buoyancy
-larger sternum for
swimming and sliding
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
An animal’s endocrine system controls body
processes through the production, secretion, and
regulation of hormones, which serve as chemical
“messengers” functioning in cellular and organ activity
and, ultimately, maintaining the body’s homeostasis.
The endocrine system plays a role in growth,
metabolism, and sexual development.
ELEPHANT (Mammal)
Musth or must is a periodic condition in bull
(male) elephants, characterized by highly aggressive
behavior and accompanied by a large rise in
reproductive hormones. Testosterone levels in an
elephant in musth can be as much as 60 times
greater than in the same elephant at other times.
However, whether this hormonal surge is the sole
cause of musth, or merely a contributing factor, is
unknown. Scientific investigation of musth is
problematic because even the most placid elephants
become highly violent toward humans and other
elephants during musth
Often, elephants in musth discharge a thick tar-like
secretion called temporin from the temporal ducts on the
sides of the head. Temporin
contains proteins, lipids (notably cholesterol), phenol an
d 4-methyl phenol,
cresols and sesquiterpenes (notably farnesol and its
derivatives). Secretions and urine collected from zoo
elephants have been shown to contain elevated levels of
various highly odorous ketones and aldehydes. The
elephant's aggression may be partially caused by a
reaction to the temporin, which naturally trickles down
into the elephant's mouth. Another contributing factor
may be the accompanying swelling of the temporal
glands; this presses on the elephant's eyes and causes
acute pain comparable to severe root abscess toothache.
Elephants sometimes try to counteract this pain by
digging their tusks into the ground.
Temporin
Secretion
during
Musth
FROG (Amphibian)
. Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater. The
most common species found in India is Rana tigrine.
They do not have constant body temperature. Such
animals are called cold-blooded or poikilotherms.
They have the ability to change color to hide them
from their enemies. The protective coloration is
called Mimicry. They take shelter in deep borrows to
protect them from extreme cold or heat. The
chemical coordination of various organs of the body
is achieved by hormones which are secreted by
the endocrine glands.
The prominent endocrine glands found in the frog are
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal body,
pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads. The skin of a frog is
permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water.
There are blood vessels near the surface of the skin and
when a frog is underwater, oxygen diffuses directly into the
blood. When not submerged, a frog breathes by a process
known as buccal pumping. Its lungs are similar to those of
humans, but the chest muscles are not involved in
respiration, and no ribs or diaphragm exist to help move air
in and out. Instead, it puffs out its throat and draws air in
through the nostrils, which in many species can then be
closed by valves. When the floor of the mouth is
compressed, air is forced into the lungs. The fully
aquatic Bornean flat-headed frog (Barbourula
kalimantanensis) is the first frog known to lack lungs entirely.
TURTLE (Reptile)
Terrestrial tortoises have short, sturdy feet. Tortoises
are famous for moving slowly, in part because of their
heavy, cumbersome shells, which restrict stride length.
Amphibious turtles normally have limbs similar to those of
tortoises, except that the feet are webbed and often have
long claws. These turtles swim using all four feet in a way
similar to the dog paddle, with the feet on the left and
right side of the body alternately providing thrust. Large
turtles tend to swim less than smaller ones, and the very
big species, such as alligator snapping turtles, hardly swim
at all, preferring to walk along the bottom of the river or
lake. As well as webbed feet, turtles have very long claws,
used to help them clamber onto riverbanks and floating
logs upon which they bask.
Male turtles tend to have particularly
long claws, and these appear to be used
to stimulate the female while mating.
While most turtles have webbed feet,
some, such as the pig-nosed turtle, have
true flippers, with the digits being fused
into paddles and the claws being
relatively small. These species swim in the
same way as sea turtles do.
Sea turtles are almost entirely aquatic and
have flippers instead of feet. Sea turtles fly
through the water, using the up-and-down
motion of the front flippers to generate thrust;
the back feet are not used for propulsion but
may be used as rudders for steering. Compared
with freshwater turtles, sea turtles have very
limited mobility on land, and apart from the
dash from the nest to the sea as hatchlings,
male sea turtles normally never leave the sea.
Females must come back onto land to lay eggs.
They move very slowly and laboriously, dragging
themselves forwards with their flippers.
PENGUIN (Bird)
The supraorbital gland is a type of lateral nasal
gland found in some species of marine birds,
particularly penguins, which removes sodium chloride
from the bloodstream. The gland's function is similar to
that of the kidneys, though it is much more efficient at
removing salt, allowing penguins to survive without
access to fresh water. Contrary to popular belief, the
gland does not directly convert saltwater to freshwater.
The term supraorbital refers to the area just above the
eye socket (which is known as the orbit).
Living in saltwater environments would naturally
pose a large problem for penguins because the
ingestion of saltwater would be detrimental to a
penguin's health. Although penguins do not directly
drink water, it is taken in when they engulf prey. As a
result, saltwater enters their system and must be
effectively excreted. The supraorbital gland has thus
enabled the penguins' survival in such environments
due to its water-filtering capability. The gland is located
just above the eyes and surrounds a capillary bed in the
head. This capillary bed constantly strains out the salt
in the saltwater that a penguin takes in. Since the
byproduct of the gland has roughly five times as much
salt as would normally be found in the animal's fluids,
the supraorbital gland is highly efficient.
The penguin excretes the salt byproduct as a
brine through its bill. Often, the fluid drips
out, and this gives the appearance of a runny
nose. However, the fluid may also be
sneezed out. In the absence of saltwater,
caused by captivity, the supraorbital gland
will lie dormant as it has no other purpose.
Having a dormant supraorbital gland does
not negatively affect the health of a penguin.
Endocrine
System
of Bird
TUNA (Fish)
Elephant Endocrine System Frog
-Endothermic or warm -Endocrine system that helps
blooded frogs with hibernation and
-Undergo musth, a periodic All have same reproduction. Hormones are
condition in bull elephants. general endocrine secreted to maintain
-No sweat glands glands and release homeostasis.
similar hormones
for growth,
Turtle reproduction, etc.
Tuna
-Ectothermic or cold blooded -Pituitary gland occupies the
-Has calcitonin that lowers same central part in the
the levels of calcium and endocrine signalling system
phosphate in the blood and just like mammals.
promotes formation of Penguin
bones. - supraorbital gland is a type
of lateral nasal gland found
in some species of marine
birds.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
ELEPHANT (Mammal)
The elephant circulatory system is built to
accommodate the nutritional and oxygen levels that is
required. Despite its large size, the circulatory system of
the elephant is quite unexceptional. In keeping with the
size of the animal, elephant hemoglobin has a higher
oxygen affinity than that of other mammals. The heart of
the African bull can weigh up to 28 kg, a size normal for
such a large animal.
A peculiarity exists with the ventricles of the elephant.
The ventricles are separated at their apex. Also, there are
paired venae cavae instead of the usual single vein. These
peculiarities are found in other penungulates and are
probably primitive.
Due to their enormous size, arteries are
supported by ridges of elastic fibers or
muscles cells. The veins are supported by
having proportionately thicker walls than
other mammals. The blood vessels of the
elephant can achieve lengths of up to 350
cm, which require a high blood pressure in
order to prevent their collapse if they had
thin walls.
FROG (Amphibian)
• . Circulatory system is the system of blood, heart, and
blood vessels.
1. Heart
• · Heart is triangular muscular pumping organs.
• · Heart of frog is situated ventrally to the liver in the
pericardial cavity.
• · Heart is three –chambered.
• · Upper two chambers are called auricle sand lower one
chamber is called ventricle.
• · Its anterior end is broader then posterior end.
• · The broader part anterior is known as auricle.
• · The posterior part is known as ventricle.
• · The ventricle is thick walled than auricles .right auricle
is larger than left auricle.
External structure of heart
• From the ventral view
• · The tubular structure is present on right side of anterior
part of ventricle, which is called truncus arterious gives
two branches called aortic trunks.
• From the dorsal view
• · There is somewhat triangular structure called sinus
venosus. It opens into right auricle. The right precaval,
left precaval and post caval veins open into sinus
venosus.
• Internal structure of heart:
• · Two auricles are separated by a septum called internal
auricular septum.
• · The right auricle bears opening of sinus venosus called
sinu-auricular aperture which is guarded by valves called
• · It allows flow of blood from sinus venous to right auricle and prevents
back flow of blood.
• · Left auricle bears opening of pulmonary vein without valve.
• · Auricles open into ventricles by auriculo-ventricular aperature, which is
guarded by four auriculo –ventricular valves.
• · The flaps of these valves are connected to the wall of ventricles by
chordae tendinae.
• · A ventricle is thick walled and internally give in folding called trabecule.
• · Ventricle opens into truncus arterious.
• · The opening is guarded by four semilunar valves, which prevent
backward flow of blood from truncus arterious to ventricle.
• · A truncus arterious is divided into two parts at the base.
• o conus arteriosus ( plangium)- which consists spiral valves.
• o Bulbous arteriosus ( synangium)- which is again divided into two parts.
• Cavum aorticum and cavum pulmocutanum.
• Each aortic trunk again divides into three vessels: Carotid arch, Systemic
arch, Pulmo -cutanous arch.
TURTLE (Reptile)
The circulatory system is fairly simple. The
system consists of the heart, veins, arteries and
capillaries. Sea turtles unlike humans have a
three chambered heart. The heart consists of the
left auricle, the right auricle and the ventricle.
The ventricle is somewhat separated by a partial
septum which helps to minimize the mixing of
deoxygenated and oxygenated
blood. Deoxygenated blood flows into the right
auricle. The auricle contracts and forces the
deoxygenated blood into the ventricle.
The ventricle forces the blood into the
lungs where carbon dioxide is extracted and
oxygen is added. The blood, which is now
oxygenated then enters the left auricle. The
left auricle then contracts forcing the blood
once again into the ventricle. The ventricle
then sends oxygenated blood is carried
away from the heart via arteries. As the
arteries stretch throughout the sea turtles
body they become narrower until they
become tiny blood vessels named
capillaries.
PENGUIN (Bird)
The cardiovascular system, the system that delivers oxygen and
nutrients to the cells of the penguin body, is the most important
system in the penguin. Without a properly functioning cardio
vascular system, a penguin can no longer think, mate, walk, swim
or live. Therefore, nature has designed a pump and a system of
blood vessels that are well-suited for the biological activities of
penguins. Much like our own, this system is susceptible to
deterioration. The cardiovascular system is a series circuit. Basically,
this means that everything leaving the heartcomes back to the
heart sooner or later. Oxygen enters the blood stream in the lungs,
travels by meansof pulmonary veins to the Left atrium (a small
chamber in the heart), into the left ventricle (a thickerpumping
chamber in the heart), into the various arteries of the penguin and
to the body. When cellsextract nutrients and dump their waste
products, blood travels in veins back to the heart in a
So, what blood leaves the heart returns to the heart in
due time.There are several components to thepenguin's
cardiovascular system. The mostprominent feature is the
heart. The penguinheart, just like yours and mine, is a
muscle.It's a well-designed muscle that contractsand
expands the entire life of the penguin.The speed of the
contractions increase whenthe penguin needs more
oxygen (swimming,mating, fighting, and fleeing predators)
andrelaxes when the penguin needs less oxygen(resting,
standing, sleeping). You can see inthe image on the left a
basic penguin heart.Penguin hearts and mammal hearts
areunique among animal hearts. We all havefour chambers
in our hearts.Basically, this means that oxygenated blood is
always separated from poorly oxygenated(deoxygenated)
blood. (This is considered an evolutionary advancement
over reptiles, amphibians andfish.)
These four chambers are the right and left atria
and the right and left ventricles. The atria
(singular:atrium) collect blood returning from the body
or lungs and pump that blood into the ventricles.
Theventricles have more important jobs; their either
pump the blood throughout the penguin or to the
lungsof the penguin so that it can be oxygenated. Since
the left ventricle pumps blood throughout thepenguin
body, it is much stronger than the right ventricle which
pumps blood to the lungs of the penguinonly.It might
sound strange, but penguin hearts need blood as well,
just like all other organs in the penguin.A penguin's
heart is composed of cardiac muscle and it has its own
blood supply: the cardiac arteries.As in humans, these
can become clogged and be the source of heart attacks
and death in penguins.
A new artery is the systemic artery that arises
from the systemic arch off the heart. It's very much like
our aorta. It runs along the medianaspect of the
penguin and sends off several unpaired and paired
arteries as it runs caudally.The first branch off the
systemic artery is an unpaired artery: the celiac artery.
The derivatives of thisartery will supply much of the
foregut of the penguin: gizzard, liver, pancreas, etc.
There are also 3paired arteries that deliver blood to
each lobe of the each kidney in the penguin. After the
renal arteriesleave the systemic artery, femoral arteries
are found. Femoral arteries supply blood to the legs of
thepenguin. Finally, posterior mesenteric vessels that
supply the hindgut and caudal arteries supplying
thetail branch. When tissues have extracted their
nutrients, the blood will reverse its path in a
similarfashion and return to the heart.
Circulatory
System
of Bird
TUNA (Fish)

Tuna and other warm – bodied


fishes have a unique
arrangement of arteries and
veins.
• 2-chambered heart
• Closed circulatory system
• Unidirectional blood flow:

• Veins (to heart) –> Sinus Venosus –>


Atrium –> Ventricle –> Bulbus Arteriosus –
> Aorta (Oxygenated) –> Away from heart
Elephant Circulatory System Frog
-Divided in four chambers:
-three – chambered heart
two atria and two ventricles.
that has two atria and one
-Oxygenated is fully All use circulatory
ventricle rather than two –
separated with system as to
transport chambered heart of fish.
deoxygenated blood.
nutrients and
gases through the
Turtle body.
Tuna
-Same with amphibians but -Single circuit for blood flow
ventricle is divided more and a two – chambered
effectively by a partial heart that has only a single
septum which results in less atrium and a single ventricle.
Penguin
mixing oxygenated and - Blood flow is directed in
deoxygenated blood. two circuits: one through the
lungs and back to the heart,
which is called pulmonary
circulation.
END

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