Maritime Automation

Maritime automation
Presented by
Saptarshi Basu
Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 1

Overview
 Characteristics of Automation
 Human Performance in Automated Systems
 Designing for Effective Human-Automation

Interaction

What is Automation?
“A machine or system that accomplishes

(partially or fully) a function that was
previously carried out (partially or fully) by a
human operator”
Source: PARASURAMAN, R., & RILEY, V. (1997). Humans and

automation: Use, misuse, disuse, abuse. Human Factors.

Reasons for the March Towards
More Automation
 Cost
 Safety?
Technical Capability
 Human Factors?

Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty,
Nantucket, 1995

Nantucket, 1995
• Accident: Grounding of passenger ship on

Rose and Crown shoal near Nantucket Island,
MA
• Losses: $2 million structural damage; $5
million lost revenue; no injuries or fatalities
• Automation: Autopilot; Automatic Radar
Plotting Aid (ARPA); Global Positioning
System (GPS)
Nantucket, 1995

Nantucket, 1995
• NTSB Probable Cause: Over-reliance on

automated features of the integrated
bridge system; management failure to
ensure officers adequately trained in
automated features
• Human-Automation Issues: automation
complacency; crew resource
management; training

NTSB Report Conclusions (Extracts)
• …the GPS receiver antenna cable connection separated
enough that the GPS switched to dead reckoning mode,
and the autopilot….no longer corrected for the effects of
wind, current or sea….
• …the watch officers’ monitoring of the status of the
vessel’s GPS was deficient throughout the voyage…
• ….deliberate cross-checking between the GPS and the
Loran-C to verify position…was not being performed….
• ….all the watchstanding officers were overly reliant on the
automated position display….and were, for all intents and
purposes, sailing the map display instead of using
navigation aids or lookout information

Human Performance in Automated Systems

Human Performance
 Cognitive Processes
Visual Attention
 Mental Workload
 Vigilance and Monitoring
 Working Memory
 Situation Awareness
 Decision Making
 Social Processes
Trust in Automation
Attitudes

Levels of Automation
HIGH 10. The computer decides everything, acts autonomously, ignoring the
human.
9. informs the human only if it, the computer, decides to
8. informs the human only if asked, or
7. executes automatically, then necessarily informs the human, and
6. allows the human a restricted time to veto before automatic
execution, or
5. executes that suggestion if the human approves, or
4. suggests one alternative
3. narrows the selection down to a few, or
2. The computer offers a complete set of decision/action
alternatives, or
LOW 1. The computer offers no assistance: human takes all decisions and
actions.
Human-Automation Interaction:
Some Empirical Methods
• Human-in-the-loop Simulation
• Human Performance Modeling
• Quantitative Models
• Field Studies

Automation and
Human Performance
Automation can fundamentally change the nature

of the cognitive demands and responsibilities of
the human operators of system--often in ways
that were unintended or unanticipated by
designers

Automation and Human
Performance: Benefits
 Improved precision of performance

 Operational flexibility
 Reduced mental workload
 Enhanced safety (automated warning systems)

Automation and Human
Performance: Potential Costs
 Unbalanced mental workload

 Automation complacency
 Loss of situation awareness
 Mode error/confusion
 Manual skill degradation
 Degraded teamwork/communication

Automation: The
Double-Edged Sword
 Automation often provides clear benefits
 Automation can also lead to novel, unanticipated
problems and performance costs
 Which tasks should be automated and to what
level for optimal control, performance, and
safety?
Technologists: Automate tasks as fully as technically possible—the ‘technological
imperative’
Human factors engineers: Automate to an extent that balances efficiency with
safety and ensures a proper role for the human in the resulting system

Automation Can But Does Not Always
Reduce Mental Workload
 “Clumsy Automation”—Increases mental
workload during high task load, reduces it
during low task load
 “Cognitive Overhead”—Automation is
difficult to engage, adjust, or turn off
Sources: WIENER, C. E. (1988). Cockpit automation. In E. L. Wiener & D. C. Nagel (Eds.)

Human factors in aviation. San Diego: Academic Press.
KIRLIK, A (1993). Modeling strategic behavior in human-automation interaction:
Why an “aid” can (and should) go unused. Human Factors, 35.

Effects of Level of Automation on
Situation Awareness
Levels of SA
 Level 1: Perception
 Level 2: Comprehension
 Level 3: Projection
Source: Endsley, M., & Kiris, E. (1995). The out-of-the-loop performance

Problem and level of control in automation. Human Factors, 37, 390-398.

EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF AUTOMATION
ON OPERATOR SITUATION AWARENESS
100
90
80
70
Manual Decision Consensual Monitored Full
Support AI AI Automation
LEVEL OF AUTOMATION BEFORE AUTOMATION FAILURE

Trust Affects Automation Usage
 Over-trust (Complacency)—Inappropriate
use and over-reliance on automation
 Under-trust (Distrust)—Disuse or turning
off of automation
The goal is to achieve calibrated trust

that is matched to the situation
Source: LEE, J., & MORAY, N. (1992). Trust, control strategies, and allocation of function
In human-machine systems. Ergonomics.
PARASURAMAN, R., MOLLOY, R., & SINGH, I. L. (1993). Performance
consequences of automation-induced "complacency." International Journal of Aviation
Psychology.

Automation Trust and
Complacency Study
 24 Experienced General Aviation Pilots
 2 Levels of Difficulty—Single and Multiple-Task
 2 Levels of Automation (Manual, Automated)
Task: Carry out primary flight and fuel management

tasks manually, monitor automated engine-systems task

Human Operators Are Poor at Monitoring Automated Systems When
They Are Simultaneously Engaged in Other Manual Tasks
MANUAL
AUTOMATED
100
Cost of
80 Automation
Complacency
60
40
20
0
SINGLE-TASK MULTI-TASK

Effects of Display Integration on Human-
100
Automation Interaction
Cost of Automation
80 Complacency
Eliminated
60
40
MANUAL
AUTOMATED
20
EICAS EMACS
(Non-Integrated) (Integrated)

DETECTION RATE OF UNCOMMANDED
AUTOMATION MODE TRANSITIONS (%)
100
Visual Only
Visual+Tactile
80
Tactile Only
60
40
MANUAL DYNAMIC
w/ FD AUTOPILOT

Summary of
Human Performance
• Certain automation designs can lead to
unbalanced mental workload, reduced
situation awareness, and miscalibrated trust and
complacency
• The “irony of automation” (Bainbridge, 1983)—
highly reliable but imperfect automation has a
greater cost than less reliable automation
when the automation fails
• Some of these costs can be mitigated using
integrated displays, multi-modality
feedback, ecological interface design, and
adaptive automation

Evaluative Criteria: Human
Performance
 Mental models
 Communication and coordination
 Mental workload
 Situation awareness
 Trust and complacency
 Cognitive skills
 Teamwork

Additional Evaluative Criteria
 Production and Operating Costs
 Automation Reliability
 Costs of Decision/Action Consequences
 Efficiency/Safety Tradeoffs
 Ease of System Integration
 Liability Issues

Implementing Human Factors in Automation Design
TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Design Development Fielded System Operations
Human Factors “Fixes”
HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS APPROACH
Design Development Fielded System Operations
Human Factors Science and Engineering

INSTRUMENTATION
• INTRODUCTION of INSTRUMENTATION
• PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
• TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
• LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• FLOW MEASUREMENT
• MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
• CHARECTERISTIC
• INSTRUMENT
• PARAMETER

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
• - Bourdon tube type
• - Diaphragm type
• - Bellow type
• - Differential type
• - Strain gauge

METHOD of PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
• Balancing against a column of liquid known as
density
• Balancing against a known force
• Balancing the force produced on a known area

against the stress in an elastic medium
• Others methods

BALANCING AGAINST DENSITY
• SIMPLE ‘U’ TUBE
• MANOMETER

BALANCING AGAINST FORCE
• PISTON TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
• RING BALANCE TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
• BELL TYPE PRESURE GAUGE

BALANCING AGAINST THE STRESS in
AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
• BOURDON TUBE
• DIAPHRAGM TYPES

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
• Is the pressure of the fluid
and not the zero pressure
• Zero pressure is the
pressure in a complete Vacuum Fluid whose
absolute
vacuum pressure is to
be measured
• If a gauge of any form is
required to measure the h1mm
absolute pressure of a
fluid, it must compare the
pressure of the fluid with
the pressure in a Absolute Pressure = h1mm Hg
complete vacuum
GAUGE PRESSURE
• Most pressure gauges
measure the difference Atmospheric pressure
between the absolute Fluid whose
pressure of a liquid and the absolute
pressure is to
atmospheric pressure be measured
• Gauge Pressure = Absolute
pressure – atmospheric h mm 2
pressure (= h2 mm Hg)
 Absolute Pressure =
Gauge pressure +
atmospheric pressure Absolute Pressure = h2mm Hg
DIFFERENT PRESSURE
• Is measured by comparing
the pressure of two different Fluid at
fluids pressure P1 Fluid at
pressure P2
• Different pressure = P2 – P1 Hg
Where P2 : Pressure of Fluid 2
(greater) h3 mm
P1 : Pressure of Fluid 1
(smaller)
Diff. Pressure = (P2 – P1) Hg

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation = h3mm Hg 39
WATER MANOMETER
• P2 – P1 = gh
Where  = Density of the Pressure
Source P2 Atmospheric
liquid P1
h = Diff. In height
of columns 40
30
h 20
10

WELL-TYPE MANOMETERS
Atmospheric P1
• P2 – P1 = (1+D2/D1)gh
Scale
Due to D2/D1 very small D1
P2 – P1 = gh
Where  = Density of the
liquid
D2
h = Diff. In height
of columns
Mercury
P2 41
Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation
INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER
• By having the small
diameter limb at an angle,
the length of the scale is
increased for a given
head.
• Enables small pressure P1
differences to be read D1
more accurately D
P
2
2
h A
h = L Sin A
P2 – P1 =  x L Sin Ag
BOURDON TUBE TYPE
• ‘C’ TYPE BOURDON TUBE
• SPIRAL TYPE BOURDON TUBE
• HELICAL TYPE BOURDON TUBE

‘C’ TYPE BOURDON TUBE
Bourdon tube
End piece
Adjusting screw
Connecting link
Shoulder screw
(with nut & washer)
Screwed connection
Spigot
Cha Chassis of Bourdon gauge
SPRING

• This is the commonly used gauge for pressure
measuring.
• It consists of oval section, bent in a circular arc as an
elliptical section tube formed into a C-shape and
sealed at one end.
• The seal end, which is free to move, has a linkage
arrangement which will move a pointer over a scale.
• The quadrant consists of a toothed segment which
engages with the teeth of the central pinion which
rotates the pointer.
• The play between quadrant and pinion is taken up
by a fine phosphor-bronze hair-spring.
Cont -
• The applied pressure acts within the tube,
entering through the open end which is fixed in
place.
• The internal pressure tends to change the tube
section from oval to circular, and this tends to
straighten out until an equilibrium condition exists
between them.
• The displacement of the tube is then converted into
a reading as a needle movement over the scale.
• If measuring pressure less than atmospheric, the
free end of the tube tends to move towards the
boss, so the pointer-operating mechanism reversed
by indication of clockwise direction on the scale
• The needle moving linkage as adjustable to enable
calibration adjustment to be made as requirement.
HIGH PRESICIAN TYPE
BOURDON GAUGE
SPIRAL & HELIX BOURDON
TUBE
• The amount of movement of the free end of a
bourdon tube varies inversely as the wall-
thickness and depends upon the cross-
sectional form of the tube.
• It also varies directly with the angle subtended
by the arc through which the tube is bent. By
having an arc of 360o , the tube can be made
in the form of a spiral or helix
SPIRAL BOURDON TUBE
Pinion gear to
pointer
Pen arm
Bourdon Tube
Flexible metal
joint

• The spiral bourdon tube used for lower
pressure measurement.
• The movement of the free end of the tube
is transmitted to the pen arm or pointer
through a flexible metal connecting strip
which joints the free end to the pointer
shaft
• This enables the free end to move freely in
a radial direction as the spiral expands.
Cont -
• The spiral is made from chrome-
molybdenum steel tubing, all joints and
closures are welded and the element heat
treated to removed any stress which may
have been set up in the material.
• This ensures uniform elastic properties in
the tube.
• The junction between the spiral and the
connecting tube is made by means of a
special compression fitting

HELICAL BOURDON TUBE
Flexible metal
joint
Pen arm
Pinion gear to
pointer
Bourdon
tube

• The helix bourdon tube used for higher
pressure measurement.
• The motion of the end of the helix is
communicated to the pen in the same way
as for spiral element.
• The helical element is used in applications
where multiple records are made on the
same chart, such as measuring gas flow
involves the pressure and differential
produced across an orifice.
Cont -
• The material used for seamless tube from which
the helix is wound is determined by the nature of
fluid being metered and the range of the
instrument;-
- Special bronze alloy - 1 – 40 Bar g
- Beryllium-copper - 40 – 700 Bar g
- Chrome-molybdenum steel - 7 – 300 Bar g
• Stainless steel particularly in used in petroleum
industries where bronze is affected by corrosive
compounds in the oils
• In general, bronze elements used for steam, water,
air, nitrogen and similar gases.

No Corrosion-Tube Ranges
• Solid drawn phosphor-bronze tube with soft
soldered or brazed joints – 1 to 70 Bar g.
• Solid drawn heat-treated beryllium-copper
tube with brazed joints – up to 350 Bar g.
• Solid drawn alloy steel tube with screwed and
welded joints – 70 to 6000 Bar g.

Corrosion-Tube Ranges
• Solid drawn carbon steel tubes with soft
soldered or welded joints – 1 to 35 Bar g.
• Solid drawn stainless steel tube with welded
joints – 2 to 70 Bar g.
• Solid drawn ‘K’ monel tubes with screwed and
welded joints – 70 to 1400 Bar g.

DIAPHRAGM GAUGE
• Diaphragm element may be of two forms:-
1. Stiff metallic diaphragms or bellows
&
2. Slack Diaphragms and drive plate

Schaffer diagram gauge

High precision capsule type
Geared sector

STIFF METALLIC DIAPHRAGM
ELEMENTS
• It consists of a hardened and tempered
stainless-steel corrugated diaphragm of
about 65 mm diameter held between two
flanges known as Schaffer diaphragm gauge
• Pressure is applied to underside in the
chamber, and movement of the centre of
the diaphragm is transmitted through the
ball-and socket joint and high magnification
link to the pointer as in Bourdon Gauge.
Cont -
• The upper flange is flat to prevent further
movement of the diaphragm when the
pointer has reach the end of the scale thus
the diaphragm not damaged by excessive
pressure.
• When it to be used on corrosive fluids the
chamber is made from a corrosion-
resistance material such as Meehanite cast
iron, Manganese bronze or Stainless steel.
• In additional the diaphragm is protected by
coating the underside with thin disc of
silver.
Cont -
• Its used for measuring pressures which are
either greater or less than atmospheric, but
it is more difficult to protect the diaphragm
of the gauges for pressure less than
atmospheric pressure because of the
tendency for diaphragm and protective
coating to part under the influence of the
reduced pressure.
• This type gives better and more positive
indication than Bourdon type for low-
pressure ranges, particularly for gauges
graduated below 1 Bar.
• It also suitable for measuring fluctuating
pressures.
Servo-operated pressure mechanism

Bellows

Strain Gauge

STRAIN GAUGE METHOD
• The pressure acting on a diaphragm may be
measured in terms of a change of electrical
signal by means of the pressure transducer as
shown.
• The pressure to be measured is applied to a
stainless steel diaphragm which moves until
the force acting on the diaphragm is balanced
by the force produced by the deflected spring
element.

STRAIN GAUGE METHOD
• The resulting flexure of the spring element
tilts the sapphire posts on which the strain
gauge windings are mounted increasing the
strain, and hence the resistance in the two
windings at one ends of the posts, and
decreasing the strain and hence the resistance
in the windings on the other end.
• This changes in resistance produce
unbalanced in the Wheatstone bridge.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
• - Liquid expansion type
• - Gas expansion type
• - Metal expansion type-
• Bi-metal type
Resistance & thermocouples types
• - Pyrometer

• Temperature measurement by instruments
will give a value in degrees Celsius (oC).
• This scale of measurement is normally used

for all reading and temperature values
required except when dealing with theoretical
calculation involving the gas law, when
absolute values are required

• The degree of hotness or coldness of a body
related to some zero value known as
temperature.
• The Celsius scale measure in oC simply relates

to the freezing and boiling points of water
dividing the distance shown on a
thermometer into 100 equal divisions.
Cont-
• As absolute scale has been devised based on a
point 273.16 Kelvin (0.01 oC) which is the
triple point of water such as ice, water and
water vapour.
• The unit of absolute scale is the Kelvin. The

unit values in the Kelvin and Celsius scales are
equal and the measurements of temperature
are related, as ……..

xo C = ( x C + 273 ) K o
or y K = ( y K – 273 ) o C

CLASSIFICATION OF
EXPANSION THERMOMETERS
• Expansion of solids
• Expansion of liquids
• Expansion of gases

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
• Solid rod thermometers
• Bimetallic strip thermometers

SOLID ROD THERMOMETERS
• A temperature-controlling device may be
designed using the principle that some metals
expand more than others for the same range
temperature.
• An example of such a device is the thermostat
used with water heater consists of an invar
rod encased in a concentric brass tube. Other
electric ovens using aluminium-bronze tube
with an inner nickel-iron rod.

ROD TYPE THERMOSTAT

• The lower end of the invar rod is hard-
soldered to the containing tube.
• When this combination, or stem, is heated,

the brass rod ( = 19 x 10-6) will expand more
than the invar rod ( = 1.5 x 10-6) so that the
position of the free end of the rod relative to
the end of the tube will change.
Cont-
• This change in relative position is used to
operate a sensitive misrogap switch.
• The temperature change or ‘stem differential’
required to change the position of the switch
from ON to OFF depends upon the length of
the stem.
• The portion of the switch relate to the invar
rod can be adjusted by means of a small knob
as per required temperature.
Cont-
BIMETALLIC STRIP THERMOMETER
• Bimetal strip consist of strips of two metals

such as invar and brass welded together to
form a cantilever.
• When heated, both metals expand, but the

brass expands much more than the invar
resulting the cantilever curls upwards.
SIMPLE BIMETAL STRIP
L metal such as invar, having a low

coefficient of expansion. L
H
H metal such as brass, having a
high coefficient expansion
L
H

• Bimetal strips are often used in instruments to
compensate for the effects due to changes in
ambient temperature at the instruments.
• Instead of the free end of the Helical Bourdon
tubes and Aneroid barometers being
connected directly to the pointer operating
mechanism via bimetal strips.
Cont-
Bimetallic strip thermometer
Pointer
Helical bimetallic
strip Casing
Guide
Fixed end End fixed to

spindle Spindle
Scale
Range -40oC to 320oC (Approximately)

Expansion of solids
• Watches are compensated for the effects of
temperature changes by making the balance
wheel in the form of two curved bimetal
strips.
• The metal with the grater coefficient of
expansion is put on the outside so that when
the temperature rises the strips curl, moving
part of the mass of the rim towards the centre
of the balance wheel and reducing its moment
of inertia.
Cont-
Expansion of solids
• This effect can be arranged to counter balance
the effect due to the changes in elastic
properties of the hair spring and main spring
s
H s
L
s
s
s
s
L
s H s
Temperature compensated balance wheel

Thermocouple
Millivoltmeter
If junctions A and B are

maintained at the
same temperature, no Copper wire Copper wire
current will flow

If A is heated to a
higher temperature,
Constantine wire
then B the current will
flow B
A

Third wire can be introduced AB and AC from the
couple wire.
Couple wire AB and AC made of various metals and
alloys depending upon the temperature of
operation
B Copper wire
A Cold junction
Hot junction C
Millivoltmenter
Thermocouple

EXPANSION of LIQUID
• Liquid-in-glass Thermometer
• Liquid –in-metal Thermometer

LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER
• Most common liquid used is mercury
• The coefficient of cubical expansion or
volumetric expansion of mercury is about
eight times greater than that of glass.
• It consists simply of a stem of suitable
glass tubing having a very small but
uniform bore and a thin walled glass bulb
at the bottom of the stem.
• The bulb either cylindrical or spherical
shape and has a capacity many times
larger than the bore of stem.
Cont-
• The bulb and bore completely filled
with mercury and the open end of the
bore sealed off either at high
temperature or under vacuum.
• This type suitable for temperature in
the range of, -38oC (freezing point of
mercury) to 350oC.
• The boiling point of mercury is 357oC
at atmospheric pressure.

• For higher temperature measurements,
the top end of the bore is enlarged into a
bulb having a capacity of about 20 times
that of the bore of the stem.
• This bulb together with the bore above
the mercury is then filled with nitrogen or
CO2 at a high pressure to suppress the
boiling of the mercury.
• The fluid is contained in a sealed glass
bulb and the temperature is read using a
scale etched along the stem of the
thermometer.

• A mercury-in-glass thermometer has a
fairly large thermal capacity (requires
quite an appreciable amount of heat to
change its temperature by one degree),
and glass is not a very good conductor
of heat and have a definite thermal lag.
• Tendency for vapourization of mercury
at high temperatures and condense on
the cooler portions of the stem in the
form of minute globules, will not join
up again is advisable to expose to high
temperature prolonged periods
Use of liquids other than mercury
• Mercury --- -35 to + 510oC

normal range -38 to 350oC
• Alcohol --- -80 to + 70oC
• Toluene --- -80 to + 100oC
• Pentane --- -200 to + 30oC
• Creosote --- -5 to + 200oC

LIQUID-IN-METAL THERMOMETER
• Two disadvantages of liquid-in glass
thermometers in industry
i) Glass is very fragile
ii) The position of the thermometer
for accurate temperature measurement
is not always the best position for
reading scale of the thermometer
• Liquid-in metal thermometer use to
overcome this difficulties by replaced
glass to stainless steel bulb

• The liquid no longer visible, a Bourdon
tube is used to measure the change in
mercury volume/expansion by
completely filled the bulb, capillary
tube and bourdon tube with mercury.
• The capillary tube may be of
considerable length so the indicator
operated by the bourdon tube may be
some distance away from the bulb thus
it is considered as ‘distant reading’ or
‘transmitting’ type

Thermometer bulbs
• Having a large variety of forms depending upon the use to which it
is put.
• If the average temperature of a large enclosure is required (gases),
the bulb may take the form of a considerable length of tube of
small diameter either arranged as U or wound into a spiral
• The bulb is cylindrical in shape and has a robust wall: the size of
the cylinder depends upon many factors, such as the type of filling
medium and the temperature range of the instrument,
However….In all cases, the ratio of
surface area
volume
Is kept at a maximum to reduce the time lag in the response of the
reading

• The flange for attaching the bulb to the
vessel in which it is placed also has a
variety of forms depending upon
whether the junction has to be gas-
tight or other factors

Thermometer-wells, pockets or
sheaths
• Prevent the bulb being subjected to high pressure
• Will enable change the bulb without shutting down
the plants
• Prevent from direct contact to corrosive action. In
addition, the pocket may be coated either by lead,
glass or refractory sheaths on the outside to give
better protection
• The response might be slower than unprotected
bulb can be rectified by keeping the clearance
down to absolute minimum and filling the space
with oil, mercury, powered metal or carbon

Thermometer-wells, pockets or
sheaths

Filling liquids in the bulbs
 Mercury --- -39 to + 650oC

 Xylene --- - 40 to + 400oC
 Alcohol --- -46 to + 150oC
 Ether --- +20 to + 90oC
 Other organic liquids
--- -87 to + 260oC

EXPANSION OF GASES
• The principle of gas filled thermometer is the
pressure increases with temperature, if the
volume is maintained constant. If therefore, a
certain volume of inert gas is enclosed in a
bulb, capillary tube and Bourdon tube, and
most of the gas is in the bulb, then the
pressure as indicated by Bourdon tube, may be
calibrated in terms of the temperature of the
bulb

EXPANSION OF GASES
• Since the pressure of a gas maintained at
constant volume, the scale will be linear
provided the increase in volume of the
Bourdon tube, as it uncurls, can be neglected
in comparison with the total volume of gas
• An advantage is that the gas in the bulb has a
lower thermal capacity than a similar
quantity of liquid, so the response of the
thermometer to temperature changes will be
more rapid with a bulb of same size and
shape

EXPANSION OF GASES
 The coefficient of cubical expansion of a gas is many

times larger than that of a liquid or solid (air,0.0037;
mercury,0.00018; stainless steel, 0.00003)thus bulb
size would be smaller
 However, the bulb must have a cubical capacity

many time larger than that of the capillary tube
and Bourdon tube due to the effects of ambient
temperature changes upon the system

Resistance type pyrometers
• In the modern world, mercury and spirit-filled
thermometers have largely given way to electrical
devices, which can be digitized and automated.
• Platinum resistance thermometers are electrical
thermometers which make use of the variation of
resistance of high-purity platinum wire with
temperature.
• This variation is predictable, enabling accurate
measurements to be performed.
• They are sensitive and, with sophisticated equipment,
measurements, can routinely be made to better than a
thousandth part of 1 °C.

Ranges
• Copper --- -50 to 250oC
• Nickel --- -200 to 350oC
• Platinum – up to 800oC Standard material used in
the resistance thermometer that defines the
International Practical Temperature scale because
of its stability, accuracy and adequate in use even
having the highest possible coefficient of resistance
• Degree of accuracy + 0.75 % of scale range. If
special precaution are taken to avoid strains due to
vibration, range may extended to 1100oC

Resistance bulbs
• Platinum resistance sensors may be
designed for any range within the limits of
15K and 800oC and capable of withstanding
pressure up to 600 bar and vibration up to
60g’s, or more, at frequencies up to 2000
Hz.
• Size of 2mm diameter by 8mm long, in the
case of the miniature fast response
elements, to 6mm diameter by 50mm long

Resistance bulbs
• The ceramic formers are virtually silica-free
and the resistance element is sealed in with
high temperature glass to form an
impervious (prevent from liquid or gases
getting thru) sheath which is unaffected by
most gases and hydrocarbons.
• The external leads which are silver or
platinum of a diameter much larger than
the wire of the resistance element are
welded to the fine platinum wire wholly
inside the glass steel
Resistance bulbs
• High temperature form in which the spiral

platinum coil is bonded at one edge of each
turn with high temperature glass inside
cylindrical holes in a ceramic rod.
Resistance bulbs
• In the high accuracy type used mainly for

laboratory work the coil is not secured at
each end but left free to ensure complete
strain-free mounting
Resistance bulbs
• A robust form suitable for used in aircraft

and missiles or any severe vibration
condition is required a ceramic is in solid
rod form and the bifilar wound platinum
coil is sealed to the rod by a glass coating
Resistance bulbs
• The sensor is intended for use for

measuring surface temperatures
Resistance bulbs
• An open-wire element suitable for

applications on clean electrically non-
conducting liquids or gases where a very
quick response is required
Resistance bulbs
• A complete construction of a complete

thermometer bulb suitable for three-wire
connection
Dynatherm resistance bulb
• Foxboro Dynatherm resistance bulb shown
the resistance wire which is insulated
nickel, is wound on a silver core.
• A spring presses the bulb down into the
protective well so that this core is pressed
on metal foil which is in contact with the
bottom of the well thus increase the rate of
heat transfer and reduce time lag
• Temperature range up to 310oC

The Dynatherm resistance bulb - Foxboro
THERMISTORS
• As a thermally sensitive resistors whose prime
function is to exhibit a large, predictable and precise
change in electrical resistance when subjected to a
corresponding change in body temperature.
• Its consists of an element of semiconductor which has
a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistors
exhibit a decrease in electrical resistance when
subjected to an increase in body temperature about
ten times greater than that of copper or platinum.
• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors
exhibit an increase in electrical resistance when
subjected to an increase in body temperature.

THERMISTORS
• More sensitive and having higher resistivity material with a
very small in size thus giving the speed of response
• Range usually 300oC and may up to 900oC
• Thermistors made from metal oxides or mixtures of metal
oxides. The oxides used are the oxides of cobalt, copper,
iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, tin, titanium, uranium
and zinc.
• The oxides in powder form are usually compressed into the
desired shaped and then heated to a temperature
sufficiently high to recrystallise them, resulting in a dense or
compact ceramic body
• Electrical contacts are made with the thermistor by mean of
wire embedded before the firing, by plating. Or by metal
ceramic coating baked on
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING RTD/ PT 100
O/P SIGNAL 100%

MEASUREMENT
IN mA
0%
R B
RTD SENSOR OUTPUT
R B B
R B MULTIFUNCTION TRAINER
MULTIFUNCTION TRAINER
24 V DC
+ -
RTD/PT 100 SENSOR
Internally connected
RTD SENSOR
R B B

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING THERMOCOUPLE
O/P SIGNAL 100%

MEASUREMENT
IN mA
0%
R B
THERMOCOUPLE OUTPUT
R B
R B MULTIFUNCTION TRAINER
24 V DC
+ -
THERMOCOUPLE
THERMOCOUPLE
R B

PROXIMITY SWITCH (AC) WIRING AND OPERATION
230 V AC
-
+
PROXIMITY
SWITCH AC
FLAME EYE
SENSOR
A1 A15
PROXIMITY SWITCH
A1 A15
R B

FLAME EYE SENSOR WIRING AND OPERATION
FLAMEEYE SENSOR
NO C NC
FLAME RELAY OUTPUT MULTIFUNCTION TRAINER

230 V AC
-
+
PROXIMITY
SWITCH AC
FLAME EYE
SENSOR
A1 A15
FLAMEEYE SENSOR
A1 A15
R B

LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• - Bubbler Type
• - Diaphragm type
• - Pneumecator
• - Differential Type
• - Distance reading

LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Manual Methods of Level Measurement

• There are a number of ways that level can be
measured within the process control systems. The
level measurement methods range from manual
systems through to systems that can be integrated
into automated control systems.
Electrical Methods of Level Measurement
• The following set of level measurement methods can
have an electrical output and can be integrated with
automated control systems for control and display
purposes.

Manual Methods of Level
Measurement
• Dipstick - A common method of level measurement,
all car owners are familiar with. This method
provides a manual method of detecting level.(slow
changes)
• Hook Gauge - The hook gauge is another form of
Dipstick method providing greater level
accuracy.(small changes)
• Sight Glass - Another common manual method of
level measurement. The liquid level is directly
displayed against a scale.(Unrecorded changes)

Electrical Methods of Level
Measurement
• Pressure - Measuring the differential pressure between the
surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid can be used
to provide a level.Can be used for measurement of liquids in
open or closed vessels.
• The blubber method uses a pipe submersed into the liquid
(to the bottom of the vessel). This pipe is connected to a
pressure transducer and constant air supply. The pressure
instrument measures the level, the higher the level the
greater the back pressure on the pressure transducer.
• Weight - Simple method, mounting the vessel onto weigh
scales or load cells. The greater the level the greater the
weight.

Measurement
• Conductivity can be used to measure level giving
discrete readings of the level. The system uses two
electrodes, one immersed into the liquid the second
to the switching point. The liquid must be conductive,
when the level covers both probes a current flows
between the electrodes. The current flowing is
detected providing the level switch.
• The resistance level measurement method is
basically two elements that are mounted vertically
into the vessel. One strip is made up of chained
resistors. As the level rises in the tank the elements
are shorted together and the resistance reduced. The
lower the resistance the higher the level.
Measurement
• The capacitor method used two cylinders that are
mounted vertically in the tank. These act as the
plates of two capacitors in parallel, one with air
between the plates and the second with the liquid.
As the level changes the total capacitance is
changed.
• The ultrasonic method uses a transmitter and
receiver. The transmitter emits pressure waves at
approximately 20kHz. The ultrasonic waves reflect
off the material the level is being measured. The
level is determined from the time it takes for the
emitted waves to be reflected and detected by the
receiver. The higher the level the quicker the waves
are reflected to the receiver.
LEVEL MONITORING OF TANKS
Tanks are divided into the following Heads :
• 1. Heavy Fuel Oil. • 4. M/E Fresh Water
Tanks.
• 2. Diesel oil Tanks
• 5.Bilge tanks.
• 3. Lubricating oil Tank
• 6.Sludge tanks

Various Tank Level Alarms
• 1) Heavy oil Settling tank
H/L & LL
2) Heavy Oil Service Tank LL 11) LO Day tank. LL
• 3) Diesel oil Settling Tank 12) G/E LO Storage Tank LL
H/L & LL 13) G/E LO Settling Tank. LL
4) Diesel oil Service Tank LL 14) Cylinder Oil Storage Tank. LL
• 5) Aux Boiler F O tank LL 15) Cylinder LO measuring tank. LL
6) F.O. Over flow tank. H/L 16) M/E Cam Shaft L.O Tank. LL
17) LO drain Tank. H/L
• 7) M/E FO Drain tank. H/L 18) Stern Tube LO header tank L/L
8) M/E FO Leakage Tank. 19) Stern Tube Gravity tank ( Upper &
H/L Lower)
• 9) LO Settling Tank H/L 20) M/E LO sump tank. L/L
and LL
10) LO Storage Tank
H/L

Various Tank Level Alarms
21) Stern Tube Fwd Seal LO Tank LL • 35) Oily Bilge Tank. H/L
22) G/E LO Sump Tank. LL • 36) Waste oil Tank H/L
23) G/E Rocker Arm LO Tank. LL & L/L
24) G/E FO Leakage Tank HL • 37) Scavenge Drain Tank. H/L
25) Fuel Oil Sludge Tank. HL • 38) Cascade Tank. H/L
26) Lub Oil Sludge Tank. HL & L/L
27) M/E FW Expansion Tank. LL
• 39) Steering Gear Hydraulic Tanks. L/L
28) G/E FW Expansion Tank. LL
29) Fresh Water Hydrophor Tank. L/L • 40) Sewage Holding Tank. H/L
30) Fresh Water Tank L/L • 41) Remote Control Hydraulic Tank. L/L
31) Drinking water Tank. L/L • 42) M/E Fly Wheel Pit Tank. H/L
32) Bilge Holding Tank L/L • 43) Stuffing Box drain tank. H/L
33) Bilge Level Tank ( Fwd Port, Stbd
Port, Aft ) H/L
34) Clean Bilge Tank. H/L

LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES
1. 1. Dip sticks
2. 2. Sight gauge glasses.
3. 3. Float switches ( magnetic
4. 4. Air bubbler tube air purge tube
5. 5 capacitance type level sensors
6. 6. Conductivity type level sensors
7. 7. Sonic ( radar) level sensors
8. 8. Bilge level floats
9. 9 level transmitters/transducers

FLOW MEASUREMENT
• - Define Bernoulli’s Theorem
• - Orifice type
• - Ventury type
• - Variable area type
• - Positive Displacement type
• - Turbine type
• - Electromagnetic type

TANKS UNDER PRESSURE SIGHT
GLASS METHOD
• When measuring the liquid level in
a tank under pressure, the sight
glass is connected to the tank at top
as well as at the bottom, by two
valves.
• The Valve at the bottom is provided
for blowing out the gauge .
• High pressure sight glass in which
measurement is made by reading
the position of the liquid level on
the calibrated scale.
• The glass tube has a small inside
diameter and a thick wall.
• Sight glass is located on out side the
tank. Accuracy and readability
depends upon the cleanliness of
glass or fluid.
Conductivity Type LEVEL Detector
• Conductivity probe level detector system has one or more level
detectors, an operating relay, and a controller.
• When the liquid makes contact with any of the electrodes, a electric
current will flow between the electrode and ground.
• This current energizes the relay (float less).
• Contacts to open or close depending upon the state of the process
involved.
• The relay in turn will actuate an alarm, a pump, a control valve, or
all the three.
• A typical system has probes :
– Low level probe.
– Low level probe
– High level probe
– High level alarm probe

Conductivity Type LEVEL Detector
Probe Type Level Detector FLOATLESS RELAYS

ULTRA SONIC METHOD
• Level by Ultrasonic method because they are non contact type
measurement technique no physical contact with the liquid. Such
devices use the technique of acoustic energy transmission.
• The measurement depends on the length of time taken for
reflections of an ultrasonic pulse from the surface of the material.
• Pulses of high frequency sound waves are applied by using a piezo
electrical crystal. The electrical pulses produced by the transducer
converts it into the mechanical vibration or sound waves.
• The sound wave is in the ultrasonic frequency range of 35 to 40 KHz.
The energy is reflected back.
• The signals received are shown on the CRT, which shows the
distance between the crystal generator and the surface from which it
originates.
• The ultra sonic transmitter and receiver are located above the tank,
Two echoes are received, one from the liquid level and other from
the tank bottom.
• The time separation between the two echoes is proportional to the
level of the liquid.
ULTRA SONIC METHOD

PURGE OR BUBBLER SYSTEM
• Air under pressure is applied via a flow indicator such as Rotometer,
through an orifice.
• The tube enters the tank and ends at a point just above the sludge line.
There is a pressure gauge, calibrated in height units.
• When the tank level is below the bottom end of the bubbler tube, the
air of the tube escapes and there is no resultant back pressure, thus
gauge shows min height.
• when the tank is full , no air can escape from the tube, and back pr is
max, thus gauge shows max reading.
• As the tank fills up, the force exerted on the liquid increases , thus back
pressure increases, and the remaining air escapes, & gauge now shows
correct level.
• Because air is continuously bubbling from the bottom of the tube , the
tank liquid does not enter the bubbler tube and therefore the tube is
said to be purged.
• This type of device is well suited for measuring the level of corrosive
liquids.
PURGE OR BUBBLER SYSTEM

SAAB (RADAR ULLAGING SYS)




MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENT
• - CO2 meter
• - O2 meter
• - Hydrocarbon meter
• - Speed measurement meter –
Tachometer
• - Power measurement

Calibration of Instrument System
 Measurement of Accuracy
 Establishment the relation of an

instrument’s accuracy to the international
standard

Typical Measurement System Architecture
Noise and Interference
Process Signal
Sensor
or or Amp Conditioner
Test Transducer
ADC
Converter
OUR TOPIC IS HERE
Proces
s
PC comp
and data
Controller storage
… and control
over the process or experiment

1. Calibration process
The purpose of calibration is to ensure that the measuring
accuracy is known over the whole measurement range under
specified environmental conditions for calibration.
Instrument to be
Instrument Output
Input (whole calibrated
measuring range)
Instrument of The input value

Higher Standard with known
accuracy
Ensure the
Environmental calibration is done
Conditions Standard
Instrument under the specified
(Modifying Inputs) environmental
conditions
Fig.1 Calibration of Instrument
Correction and adjustment
A proper course of action must be defined which describes the
procedures to be followed when an instrument is found to be
out of calibration. The required action depends very much upon
the nature of the discrepancy and the type of instrument
involved. For example,
• Simple output bias can be corrected by a small adjustment
• Alternation of scale factor may be corrected by redrawing the output scale or
adjusting the amplification.
For the corrections mentioned above, the adjustment screws

must be sealed to prevent tampering. In extreme cases, where
the calibration procedure reveals signs of instrument damage,
it may be necessary to send the instrument for repair or even
replacement.
Calibration process must be managed and executed
in a professional manner:
• A particular place for all calibration operations to take place and
keeping all instruments for calibration
• A separate room is preferred because (1) better environmental
control and (2) better protection against unauthorized handling
or use of the calibration instruments.
• The performance of all calibration operations is assigned as the
clear responsibility of just one person.
• Calibration procedures, used for quality control functions, are
controlled by the international standard ISO 9000. It requires
that all persons using calibration equipment be adequately
trained.

Instrument calibration has to be repeated at prescribed
intervals because the characteristics of any instrument change
over a period of time. Factors deciding the frequency of
calibration:
• usage rate
• conditions of use
• skill level of personnel
• degree of accuracy expected
• costs of calibration
Maintaining proper records is an important part of fulfilling the

calibration function, which is very useful in providing a
feedback which shows whether the calibration frequency has
been chosen correctly or not.

2. Traceability
National standard organization
As shown in Fig.2, calibration has a chain- (Primary reference standard)
like structure in which every instrument in
the chain is calibrated against a more
accurate instrument immediately above it Standards laboratory
in the chain. (Secondary reference standard)
The knowledge of the full chain of

instruments involved in the calibration Company instrument laboratory
procedure is known as traceability, and is (Working standard)
specified as a mandatory requirement in
satisfying the ISO 9000 standard.
Documentation must exist which shows Process instruments

that process instruments are calibrated by
standard instruments which are linked by a
chain of increasing accuracy back to Fig.2 Calibration Chain
national reference standards.
In engineering measurement and calibration, the ‘ten-to-one’
rule is usually applied to the choice of instrument, which
states
For a particular measuring application, choose an instrument

the discrimination of which splits the permissible tolerance on
the dimension to be measured into approximately 10 parts.
For example,
If the tolerance on a dimension is 0.5mm, choose an

instrument which has a resolution of 0.1mm.
If tolerance is 0.02mm on a part, then choose an Instrument

with a resolution 0.002mm

Sensors and Instrumentation
• Sensors are “the spies/eyes/ears” of any instrumentation
system
• Sensors are hardly ever used alone, without amplifiers,
signal conditioners, and nowadays DSP
• Need to understand how to deliver the information from
the sensor to the “consumer”
• Is the information from the “spies” correct? If so can we
estimate the accuracy of this information?
– Errors in measurements
• Imposed by the sensors
• Imposed by the instrumentation
• Imposed by humans
– Accuracy, resolution, instrument deviation, span, etc

A proper course of action must be defined which describes the
procedures to be followed when an instrument is found to be
out of calibration. The required action depends very much
upon the nature of the discrepancy and the type of instrument
involved. For example,
• Simple output bias can be corrected by a small adjustment

• Alternation of scale factor may be corrected by redrawing
the output scale or adjusting the amplification.
For the corrections mentioned above, the adjustment screws

must be sealed to prevent tampering. In extreme cases, where
the calibration procedure reveals signs of instrument damage,
it may be necessary to send the instrument for repair or even
replacement.

The instrument used for calibrating working standard
instruments is known as a secondary reference standard.
When the working standard instrument has been calibrated by
an authorized standards laboratory, a calibration certificate
will be issued. This will contain at least the following
information:
• The identification of the equipment calibrated.

• The calibration results obtained.
• The measurement uncertainty.
• Any use limitations on the equipment calibrated.
• The date of calibration.
• The authority under which the certificate is issued.

Error of Measurement
• Error of measurement refers to the difference between

the measurement we obtain and the "true" value of the
variable.
• Question: Where do you get the "true" measure if all
measuring methods produce errors?
• Answer: "True" measures cannot be obtained, but they
can be estimated.

Role of the True Value
• The true value of an object being measured is rarely ever

known.
• Identifying the true value needed by an end user is critical.
• What are we trying to measure?
• The true value is often a concept that is very hard (or
impossible) to measure.
• Moffat [3] uses the example of average surface temperature as a
true value that is needed for defining the heat transfer
coefficient.

Start with the Truth
• Goal is to experimentally measure a physical quantity
• The true value of the quantity is a concept. In almost all cases,
the true value cannot be measured.
• The error in a measurement is the difference between the true
value and the value reported as a result of a measurement.
• If x is the quantity of interest
Error  xmeasured  xtrue

• A claim of numerical Accuracy establishes an upper bound on
the error.

Examining Errors
• The Plan:
• 1. Classify errors
• 2. Identify sources of errors
• 3. Remove errors we can correct
• 4. Develop a procedure for computing
uncertainty
• 5. Demonstrate how to apply these
methods to a measurement.

Classifying Errors
• Ideal Distinction: bias versus random errors
• Bias error is a systematic inaccuracy caused by a mechanism that
can be (ideally) controlled.
• Measurements can be adjusted to account for bias errors.
• Random error is a non-repeatable inaccuracy caused by an
unknown or an uncontrollable influence.
• Random errors establish the limits on the precision of a
measurement.
• A more practical distinction of errors as three types of errors.
• Fixed errors
• Random errors
• Variable but deterministic errors
• Fixed errors and variable but deterministic errors are also called
bias errors.

Fixed Error
• All repeatable errors are fixed errors.

• A fixed error is the same for each nominal operating point of
the system
• Sources of fixed error:
• Sensor calibration
• Fixed disturbance to system
• Examples
• A pressure gauge that always reads 20kPa high.
• Heat flow along thermocouple leads when measuring the
temperature of an object
• Effect of probe blockage on flow field downstream of the
probe.

Random Error
• Random errors have different
magnitude during subsequent
measurements of the same
quantity.
• For well behaved systems,
random errors in a
measurement cause a cluster of
observed values.
• We will assume that random
errors are normally distributed.
• This is reasonable for large
sample sizes and truly random
errors

Variable but Deterministic Error
• Some errors that appear to be random can be caused by

faulty measurement techniques or the errors may be
variable but deterministic.
• Errors change even though the system is at the same
nominal operating point
• Errors may not be recognized as deterministic: variations
between tests, or test conditions, may seem random.
• Cause of these errors are initially hidden from the
experimenter

Measurement equation
• The case of interest is where the quantity Y being measured,
called the measurand.
• If is not measured directly, but is determined from N other
quantities X1, X2, . . . , XN through a functional relation f, often
called the measurement equation
Y = f(X1, X2, . . . , XN)
•Included among the quantities Xi are corrections (or correction

factors), as well as quantities that take into account other
sources of variability,
•such as different observers,
•instruments,
•samples,
•laboratories, and
•times at which observations are made (e.g., different days).
• Thus, the function f of equation should express not simply a
physical law but a measurement process.
• In particular, it should contain all quantities that can contribute
a significant variation to the measurement result.
• An estimate of the measurand or output quantity Y, denoted by
y, is obtained from previous equation using
• input estimates x1, x2, . . . , xN for the values of the N input
quantities X1, X2, . . . , XN.
• Thus, the output estimate y, which is the result of the
measurement, is given by
y = f(x1, x2, . . . , xN).
The measure of a measurand is not only different from true value, but also random !!!!

Uncertainty
• "A parameter associated with the result of a

measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of
the values that could reasonably be attributed to the
measurand“
• The word uncertainty relates to the general concept
of doubt.
• The word uncertainty also refers to the limited
knowledge about a particular value.
• Uncertainty of measurement does not imply doubt
about the validity of a measurement;
• On the contrary, knowledge of the uncertainty
implies increased confidence in the validity of a
measurement result.

Error and Uncertainty
• It is important to distinguish between error and

uncertainty.
• Error is defined as the difference between an individual
result and the true value of the measurand.
• Error is a single value.
• In principle, the value of a known error can be applied as a
correction to the result.
• Error is an idealized concept and errors cannot be known
exactly.
• Uncertainty, on the other hand, takes the form of a range,
and, if estimated for an analytical procedure and defined
sample type, may apply to all determinations so
described.
• In general, the value of the uncertainty cannot be used to
correct a measurement result.

• The difference between error and
uncertainty should always be borne in
mind.
• The result of a measurement after
correction can unknowably be very close to
the unknown value of the measurand,
• and thus have negligible error,
• Even though it may have a large uncertainty

Components of Uncertainty
• “Component of uncertainty arising from a

random effect” : Type A
• These are evaluated by statistical methods.
• “Component of uncertainty arising from a
systematic effect,”: Type B
• These are evaluated by other means.

The testing pump (2) is connected to
the instrument to be tested (3), to the
actual measuring component and to
the filling socket. A special hydraulic oil
or gas such as compressed air or
nitrogen is used as the pressure
transfer medium. The measuring piston
is then loaded with calibrated weights
(4). The pressure is applied via an
integrated pump (1) or, if an external
The testing pump (2) is connected to
the instrument to be tested (3), to the
actual measuring component and to
the filling socket. A special hydraulic oil
or gas such as compressed air or
nitrogen is used as the pressure
transfer medium. The measuring piston
is then loaded with calibrated weights
(4). The pressure is applied via an
1 - Handpump integrated pump (1) or, if an external
pressure supply is available, via control
2 - Testing Pump valves in order to generate a pressure
until the loaded measuring piston (6)
3 - Pressure Gauge to be calibrated rises and 'floats' on the fluid. This is the
point where there is a balance between
4 - Calibration Weight pressure and the mass load. The piston
is rotated to reduce friction as far as
5 - Weight Support possiblepressure supply is available, via
control valves in order to generate a
6 - Piston pressure until the loaded measuring
piston (6) rises and 'floats' on the fluid.
7 - Cylinder This is the point where there is a
balance between pressure and the
mass load. The piston is rotated to
8 - Filling Connection reduce friction as far as possible

Calibration curve

A few definitions from the error theory
• Each measurement has a numerical
value and a degree of uncertainty
• Error is the uncertainty in
n  Xn  X
measurements that nothing can be
Percentile error
done about (i.e. occurring even in the
n
optimized measurement system)
%  100%
• Error in the nth measurement: X
Xn is nth measured value, X is a "true"
value; it is assumed that it exists. One X  Xn
can argue that "true" value can never Pn  1 
be known. In reality X is defined using X
a high resolution primary standard.
• Precision and sample mean.
N
X n
X  n
N

Gross errors or mistakes
• “Dynamic” error. Measurement "at first glance" for unsteady state.
Often caused by inappropriate time constant.
• Recording and calculation error. Incorrect interpolation between marks
on analog meter. Occurs if operator does not know how to write, not paying attention, not
familiar with math, etc
• Incorrect interpretation error. Trying to measure microvolts on "kiloVolts"

scale (or the opposite, which may also result in the damage to the operator/instrument)
• Misuse of instrument. Measurement of high resistance source using low input

resistance meter. Trying to measure Amps on "Hertz" scale. Using meter as a hammer
• Misuse of sensor. Using thermometer without appropriate thermal contact.

• Malfunction of sensor or instrument. (e.g. loose contact)

System (or experimental) errors
Errors which are inherent to the measurement
process (related to both sensors and instrumentation):
Calibration (gain) errors due to changing ambient conditions change (temperature, humidity)
or aging
Zero offset errors caused by ambient conditions change

Range errors saturation, nonlinearity
Reading uncertainty errors due to noise
Drift errors. Affects static measurands the most
Hysteresis errors result depends on the direction
Repeatability errors different readings for the same input applied in the same fashion
Resolution (A to D conversion) errors
Dual sensitivity errors

Calibration and Zero Offset Errors
• Calibration or gain error.

Instrument has to be
calibrated vs known
standard or at least vs  This is common cause of errors in DC
another reasonably good measurements. One should know what to be
instrument called zero. Beware of the drifts!

Range and Uncertainty Errors
-8
1.0x10
-9
5.0x10
I (A)
0.0
-9
-5.0x10
-8
-1.0x10
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
VDS (mV)
• Each instrument has finite dynamic range.

Beware of saturation and too small signals!  Noise limits the accuracy and
• Linearity is an idealization. Know the range resolution. Beware of too small
where it works! signals!

Hysteresis and Repeatability Errors
-5
3.0x10
-5
2.0x10
G(S)
-5
1.0x10
0.0
-30 -15 0 15 30
Vg(V)
•Will cause error if used as a sensor

Resolution Error

Dual Sensitivity and Back-action Errors
 An ideal sensor does not affect the process and is not

supposed to react on any other changes rather than the
quantity it is designed to react on.
 Real sensor are susceptible to various environmental
changes which can change the sensitivity, offset etc.
 This is also applicable to the whole measurement process.
 Moreover, sometimes sensors themselves can affect the
process/test.

The Result of Dual Sensitivity
Don’t mix the dual

sensitivity error with
“Rooster in the
magnet” gross error!
Here, due to change in temperature we got both the offset change and
the change in the sensitivity (calibration and offset errors)

Important statistical definitions
 Deviation dn  X n  X
N
 Average deviation X n  X
DN  n
N
 Standard deviation
1 N
SN  
N n1
( X n  X )2   X
 Signal-to-noise
Ratio
X X
SNR    N
X 1 N
N
(X
n 1
n  X )2
X
SNR improves as SNR   N
X

Accuracy and Instrument Deviation
• Full scale accuracy A  / Full scale 
– It is often quoted in units ppm (parts per million) or ppb (parts per billion)
with a simple meaning of maximal acceptable error over a full scale.
– Example: 1 ppm accuracy for 1V voltmeter - can measure accurately 1 m V of
signal on top of 1 V applied to the input. Sometimes term limiting error or
guaranteed error is used instead of accuracy.
– Example: a voltmeter with a 100 V scale has a guaranteed error of 2% of the
full scale reading. Therefore, guaranteed error in volts around full scale is 2 V
(meaning no worse than 2%)
• Instrument Deviation (ID) is defined as the product of the accuracy and the
full scale value of the instrument:
ID = AFull Scale .
Gives you the corridor of manufacturer specifications

Accuracy Bounds for an Instrument
• The instrument can introduce larger
percentile errors than the accuracy limits
seem to imply
• At half scale the error is ×2 (because Instr.
Deviation remains the same, but we operate
at only a half-scale)
• Error reaches 100% if the instrument is
used close to zero of the scale
• Given: 1 mV full-scale voltmeter with
accuracy 0.1% for full scale signal. What
error in the measurement will one get if the
reading fluctuates by 1 mV ?
– For input signal of 1 mV, the error is 100%
– For input signal of 1 mV, the error is 0.1%

Resolution
• Resolution stands for the smallest unit that can
be detected. Resolution and accuracy are
closely related. They are not the same, though
accuracy can be equal to resolution.
• Not always! E.g.:
– an ADC converter has resolution of 1/3 mV, but the last digit is so noisy, that
accuracy is of the order of 1 mV.
– Or an instrument can resolve 1 mV on top of 1 kV, but due to offset the result is
inaccurate
– Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable
– The quotient between the measuring range and resolution is often expressed
as dynamic range and is defined as:

Sensitivity, Span, Precision
• Sensitivity is a parameter extracted from the instrument response
(based on the assumption that the response is linear). If input
quantity changes by D QINP, resulting in the output quantity change of
D QOUT, then the sensitivity is
DQout
S
DQinp
• Span of the Instrument is the difference between the upper and the
lower limits of operation
span = Upper – Lower
• Precision Measurement requires a measurement system capable of
resolving very small signals, (say, one part in 107). In other words, the
precise measurement is such for which
Span / Resolution » 1

Input-Output Response Curve for an instrument
• Generic Instrument response curve includes all previously

discussed parameters
Calculations of Error for a Test with Multiple
Variables
• In case the experiment is designed so that the outcome of the measurement,
Q, is a function of multiple variables,
Q  f ( x1 ,..., xN )
• with uncertainty of (D x1, …, D xN), the resulting error can be calculated using
Taylor series. By dropping higher derivatives, the worst case uncertainty, or
limiting error (all N sources of error pull the result in the same direction) is
f N
Df max  f ( x1 ,..., xN )  f ( x1  Dx1 ,..., xN  DxN )   Dxi
• i 1 xi
Instrumentation system usually contains several elements with each element
introducing error (even when it operates within specifications!), and error
accumulates.
• Maximal accumulated error for the instrument system is given by (all sources
of error assumed to be independent (uncorrelated)) :
N
 max  i
 2
i 1

Minimizing experimental Errors
• Use the right sensor: The sensor should not affect the process and the
process should not destroy the sensor.
• Check the accuracy of each element and determine the accumulated
accepted error
• Calibrate each instrument
• Connect system with proper wires
• Check the system for electrical noise
• Estimate the total error in the system from all known sources
• Perform a system calibration by measuring the variable in a known
process. This gives you a single calibration constant for the entire system.
Example: scales

System Calibration (versus individual instruments calibration)
 Calibrate your measurement system vs known standard, so that your output (say, in volts) corresponds to
known input quantity (say, in ohms)
 In this case you don’t have to consider intermediate details of your measurement system for as long as
 The system response is linear
 There are no offset errors
 The system is within the dynamic range
 The system signal-to-noise ratio is satisfactory
 The system does not change its parameters in time
 This approach allows to eliminate instrument calibration

System Calibration
• There are situations where it is impossible to calibrate

parts of the entire system, but the system as a whole can
be easily calibrated

Linearity and Hysteresis
The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the linear
characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output. The hysteresis is
expressed as the maximum hysteresis as a full scale reading

Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics refer to
the performance of the
instrument when the input
variable is changing rapidly where Xi and Xo are the input and the
with time. The dynamic output variables respectively. The above
performance of an instrument expression can also be expressed in terms of
is normally expressed by a a transfer function, as:
differential equation relating
the input and output
quantities. It is always
convenient to express the
input-output dynamic Normally m<n an n is called the order of
characteristics in form of a the system. Commonly available sensor
linear differential equation. So, characteristics can usually be
often a nonlinear approximated as either zero-th order, first
mathematical model is order or second order dynamics
linearised and expressed.

Level Sensing methods
a) Hydrostatic Head
b) Float
c) Load Cells
d) Magnetic Level Gauge
e) Capacitance Transmitters
f) Magnetostrictive
Direct methods will measure level in terms the physical
g) location of the
Ultrasonic
surface of the material in relation to some reference h)
pointMicrowave
(e.g. bottom of
i) Laser
the tank) whereby the indirect method will infer the measurement by
measuring some other quality or characteristic of thej)material
Radarsuch as static
head pressure, weight or mass k) Guided Wave Radar
l) Dip Stick
m) Vibration

Instrument •Level is another common process
P input does variable that is measured in many
not matter industries. The method used will
vary widely depending on the
Regulated nature of the industry, the process,
purge system and the application.
Principle measurements
(air or desired in industry
nitrogen) (a) Temperature
(b) Pressure, Load
(c) Level
(d) Flow
(e) Others ( Weight, Composition,
Bottom of tube pH etc.)
determines •If the installation is in an area
reference point where explosive vapors may be
Water present, the transducer or
Height Density transmitter and its power supply
(H) (D) must be suitable for these
environments. This is usually
achieved either by placing them
inside purged or explosion proof
housings, or by using intrinsically
safe designs.
•When high process temperatures
are present, one can consider the
use of various methods of isolating
the instrument from the process.
These include loop seals, siphons,
chemical seals with capillary tubing
for remote mounting, and purging.
P
The most important criterions in
selection decision of a transducer are the
range and cost.
Measurement method used affects accuracy

The instrument used for calibrating working standard
instruments is known as a secondary reference standard.
When the working standard instrument has been calibrated
by an authorized standards laboratory, a calibration
certificate will be issued. This will contain at least the
following information:
• The identification of the equipment calibrated.

• The calibration results obtained.
• The measurement uncertainty.
• Any use limitations on the equipment calibrated.
• The date of calibration.
• The authority under which the certificate is issued.

3. Standard Laboratories
The establishment of a company standards laboratory to

provide a calibration facility of the required quality is
economically viable only in the case of very large companies
where large numbers of instruments need to be calibrated.
In the case of small to medium size companies, the cost of

equipping such instruments is not justified. Therefore, they
would normally use the calibration service provided by various
companies which specialize in offering a standards laboratory.
Such standards laboratories are closely monitored by national
standards organizations (ISO/IEC Guide 25, General
Requirements for the Technical Competence of Testing
Laboratories).

4. Accreditation of Standards Laboratories
The Hong Kong Laboratory Accreditation Scheme

(HOKLAS) is an accreditation scheme operated by the
Hong Kong Accreditation Service (HKAS).
It is a voluntary scheme open to any Hong Kong

laboratory that performs objective testing within the
scope of the Scheme and meets the HOKLAS criteria of
competence.
HOKLAS may also accept applications for accreditation

from laboratories located outside Hong Kong.

Maintenance of Accreditation of a Laboratory
Mandatory reassessments are conducted one year after the

granting of accreditation and at two-year intervals thereafter.
Surveillance visits, announced or unannounced, are also

conducted.
Accredited laboratories are visited at least once a year and are

required to participate in proficiency testing activity at least
once every four years for each major sub-area of major
disciplines.

5. Documentation of Calibration
An essential element in the operation of calibration is the provision of full
documentation that consists of the following:
• Measurement requirements (such as environmental conditions)
• Instruments used
• Calibration system and procedures operated
• Calibration record
• Traceability of the calibration system back to national reference standards
must be defined and supported by calibration certificates.
• Training programmes
The above-mentioned are also important to the maintenance of measurement
system and form a necessary part of the quality manual.

Advantages of Automation Control
• 1. Safety: Adequate monitoring & Control methods, measuring parameters, control &
alarm system, using certified instrumentation.
• 2. Reduced Manpower: Reduced labour cost
• Human Element : Errors in monitoring parameters, tiring tasks, repetitive monitoring of
the parameters by human, fatigue., no watch keeping.
• Reduction in Cost of fuel. Expensive fuel. Saving in fuel cost., proper maintaining
viscosity.
• 5.Operational Efficiency: Fail safe policy: In t he event of failure of automation controls
• 6. Very accurate monitoring & operation of equipments & M/C runs at correct
parameters. Consistent results.
• Reduced wear and tear at variable conditions.
• Efficient preventive maintenance.- more time for maintenance. Damage due to
deteriorating condition is avoided.
• Better analysis of datas.
• Coordination of Complex M/C operations.
• Reduction in operating cost of the vessel. HOW ever higher cost of maintenance of
automation equipments.
• An effective remote control of machineries.
• Greatly improves safety standards
MARINE CONTROL & AUTOMATION
• CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY RULES
• 1. FAIL SAFE:- A fail –safe policy to be adopted, should a control system fail, it should not
result in any unsafe situation or least critical consequences. That means all remote
control systems, manual emergency control systems and safety systems be designed as fail
safe.
• 2. SAFETY SYSTEMS:- means be provided to indicate the cause of the safety action.
,should lead to less critical condition. or endanger the m/c, safety of personnel. Such as :-
• Slow down the machinery.
• Start a stand by support system.
• Shut down the machinery.
• 3. MONITORING SYSTEM :-
• -Visual and Audible alarms must be independent to each other.
• - Audible alarms be distinct from other alarms. Such as fire alarm, general alarm, red
light beacons are used for fire alarm, or sirens used for CO2 alarm.
• - Visual alarms must be flashing type.
• -Acknowledgement of the alarms. mute the audible alarm or change the flashing light
to steady light.
• - Temporarily Disconnecting the alarms for maintenance.
• - Built in alarm testing – Without disrupting the normal operation

MARINE CONTROL & AUTOMATION
• POWER SUPPLY:- Power source for the control. Monitoring and
safety system be monitored and its failure to be alarmed.
• AUTOMATIC SAFETY SHUT DOWN: To avoid rapid damage to the
propulsion machinery or aux machinery, following shut downs be
provided;-
• For all Diesel Engines – over speed,
• For all steam turbines : Failure of Lub Oil
System, Overspeed, etc
• For Boiler M/C:- Flame failure, Low water level. Failure of FD
fan, , control power etc
• For Generators :- Shut down of the Prime mover incase of Lub
Oil low pressure.
• CENTRALISED CONTROL CONSOLE:- A propulsion control
station be provided with instrumentation, control systems, ie
machinery state be supervised without the need of local attendance.
•
HOW DO WE CONTROL ?
• Different medias used on board ships are:
• MECHANICAL - By using shafts, gears and wires.
• HYDRAULIC - Hydraulic machineries using hydraulic fluids. Mostly used
on Tankers
• ELECTRICAL – Using Electrical Motors or Solenoids
• ELECTRONICS – Using Computers, Logic Devices,
• Programmable Logic Controllers.
• Electronic controllers. Quicker response,
• using miniaturised solid state gadjets, Low
• consumption of power.
• PNEUMATIC : By using Low pressure compressed air, safe in explosive/
hazardous spaces in tankers, Chemical tankers, LPG tankers
• Electro- Hydraulic Media, Electro- pneumatics
• Standard classification societies verify the equipments time to time by
surveying the machineries in Engine Room and D eck.
• And build data base for each ship.
Mandatory Requirement for UMS
SHIPS
• 1.Control of Propulsion machinery from the Bridge.
• 2. Centralized Control Room. Adequate instrumentation for monitoring
and operate all main and auxiliary machineries.
• 3.Automatic Fire Detection and Alarm System.
• Early warning of fire in the boiler, incinerator , M/E crank case spaces. Oil
Mist Detector installation.
• 4.Comprehensive Machinery alarm System.
• Mimic diagram of the M/E , alarm system in the duty engineer room ,C/E
cabin, alarm system having back up from emcy source.
• 5.A Fire Control Station. - emcy H.Q.
• Must be remotely located, control of emcy p/p quick closing v/v
ventilators,
• 6.Automatic High Bilge Level Alarms and Pumping system.
• long run alarm on the panel, , proper high bilge alarms, easy pumping
of flooded area, sensing devices with alarms be provided.

Mandatory Requirement for UMS SHIPS
• 7.Automatic Start of Emergency Generator.
• to start immediately in case of black out., or dead ship condition. , min 45 secs.
• 8.Automatic Control System of The Boiler. - level controllers, feed pumps, , automatic
combustion system, safeties to over come fire fire.
• 9.Regular Testing of maintenance of instrumentation /monitoring system.
• periodic inspection of machinery spaces before putting to UMS operation.
• 10.Local ( manual ) control of essential services.), remote control of hydraulic valves,,
extended spindles for control of valves, , hydraulically operated motorised valves for
pumping out flooded areas. Operation
• 11. Steering Gear.: Steering system to be such that it can automatically isolate and
regain steering in case of single failure. There must be two steering gear Hydraulic
pump motors driven by induction motor, which can independently steer the vessel. One
of them must be supplied from the emergency source. That means the stee ring system
should be capable to operate in case of total black out.
• 12 Dead man alarm system: An approved system to provide safety to the personnel
entering the engine room during UMS operation.It is activated for a stipulated time.
When stipulated time elapses , the system gives an alarm to the bridge as well as in E/R.
If the Duty engineer has not responded to this alarm , the bridge watch keeper takes
the appropriate action.
CONTROL TERMINOLOGY
• 1. CONTROLLED CONDITION:- (OUTPUT)-- The variable ,that is being
controlled is called controlled condition. Eg physical conditions of the
controlled medium.such as Speed of the engine, temperature of the
engine cooling system, A/C temperature.
• 2. MONITORING ELEMENT:- The element that measures the
controlled condition. Eg Sensor or a transducer and produces a signal
corresponding to it which can be used by the control system.ie the
element which responds directly to the variation of the controlled
condition. Exp is sensor , transducer.
• 3. MEASURED VALUE:- Actual value of the controlled condition. As
measured by the sensor.
• 4. DESIRED VALUE:- Value required for the controlled condition, that
the operator wishes to maintain. Also called as SET VALUE.
• 5. DEVIATION:- The difference between the desired value and the
measured value. This signal is sent to the comparator so that some
corrective action is initiated.

CONTROL TERMINOLOGY
• 6. COMPARATOR:- This is part of the controller ,which compares the
actual measured value with the desired /set value. And produces a
deviation or error signal ,which can be used to operate the correcting
element. In other word it is an ERROR DETECTOR.
• 7. OFFSET:- This is sustained deviation, which occurs , when the
measured value stabilizes at some point other than the set value.This
could change with change in load conditions.Off set occurs in the
simple proportional control.
• 8. CONTROL POINT : In a simple proportional system, the controlled
condition will stablise at some point other than the set point, which is
termed as the control point
• 9. Error signal:- The signal produced by the comparator, after
comparing the measured value with the desired value.or set point
• 10. ACTUATOR:- Which is operated by the controller, to take the
correcting action based upon the deviation.
• 11. FEED BACK :- The transmission of the measured value to the
comparator is termed as the feed back. The feed back could be
positive or negative.
Definitions
• The value, that is required to be maintained, is
called as the Desired Value.
• The difference between the Desired Value and
the actual or Measured Value is called as the
Deviation or Error.
• The simplest type of control (On – Off) is suitable
for simple systems, where there is not much
change in demand, or, where a larger deviation is
acceptable.
• E.g. Filling of a water tank.
ELEMENTS OF PROCESS CONTROL
SYSTEM
• OBJECTIVE OF PROCESS CONTROL
• To regulate the value of some quantity.
• OR
• To regulate means to maintain that quantity at some desired value
regardless of external influences.
• This is a control over variables like pressure, temperature, viscosity,
level,flow , speed, humidity sound level , light level.and so on.
• Desired value called the reference value or set point.
• For Exp :-
• - Temperature of the Room by Air Condition M/C. ie
on/off of the AC compressor to maintain temperature.
• - Speed of the Auto mobile, by an accelerator control.
• - Water Level of the Boiler M/C by feedwater control valve.

Process Control Loop: ELEMENTS
• 1. Process ( Setpoint )
• 2.Measurement of process variable :Done by sensors
and converts the measurment to a value ie 4-20 mA.
• 3.Error Detection ( Control Station): This reads the
measured value and transfers it to the controller.
• 4.Controller.( Compares with set point): Controller
uses (Proportional, Integral, Derivative ) action and
compares the measured value with the desired value.
• 5 Actuator ( Control Valve ): The output of the
controller positions control valve of the actuator.
Types of control loop
• There are two types of
control loop:-
1. Open loop which
depends on human
control.
2. Closed loop with
automatic feedback
mechanism
with/without manual
change over

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM:
• Open – loop system is one
in which the input to the
process is independent of
the output.Since the output
is not sensed, the input is
usually dependent on some
other variable. Eg TIME.
• In Manual open loop system
is one where human
operator is essential.If he is
replaced by a control
system, it becomes an
automatic open loop.
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF
OPEN LOOP
• Advantage :- • Disadvantages:-
• -Cheaper. • -Not suitable where
• -Simpler, easy to system is complex.
trouble shoot. • -Excessive deviation
• -No hunting. from the set point.
• -suitable where
precise control is not
essential.

ELEMENTS OF CLOSED CONTROL LOOP

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
• A closed loop control system in which control action is
dependent on the output.There is some mean to monitor the
output, & generate an error signal , which can correct the input.
• For exp:-RPM speedometer , temperature, level, flow etc
• With this system the output magnitude is sensed, fed back and
compared with the desired value or the input.
• Controlled condition is required to be monitored continuously
and generate the error signal and then correct the the input. ie
(we close the loop ) The feed back signal is effectively
subtracted or added to the reference signal to obtain the error
signal, hence known as positive or negative feed back
• If a human is doing the job of observing the output and taking
necessary corrective action, then that control is called manual
closed loop.
• When the operator is replaced by a controller, that uses a
sensor, comparator to get the deviation and a correcting signal
to the input is given, then it is called automatic closed loop 220
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF
CLOSED LOOP
• Advantages of Closed • DISADVANTAGES of
Loop.:- Closed Loop
• -Suitable for the system • -More expensive than
having considerable open Loop.
load change. • -Possibility of hunting.
• -Finer control, with less
chances of deviation

Gain in a CLOSED LOOP System
• H = The Fraction of the output fed back to the input
• The Error Signal = Vi – H.Vo
• The output Vo = G ( Vi – H.Vo )
• = GVi – GH Vo
• VO + GHVo = GVi
• VO = G
• Vi 1+ GH
• Gain = G
• 1 + GH

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONTROL
ACTION
1. On – off or two step control action.
2. Simple proportion action.
3. Integral action control.
4. Derivation action control

ON/OFF or TWO STEP Control
• The Main advantage of On/Off control is that it is
simple and cheap, thus used as fuel oil heating
and calorifier, where accurate criteria is not
required. But for precession control such as Main
Engine Fuel oil temperature control system, it is
not suitable.
• Controller action is binary having only two level
outputs.
• Differential between “cut-in” and “cut-out”
necessary to prevent contact chatter.

ON/ OFF switching Action of the level
control

On – Off Control
Fall in level
Fulcrum Sensor
(Float)
‘Closing’ of the contact
Input
Output or
Consumption
Proportional Control
• If there is fluctuation in supply / demand, then
simple On – Off action is not suitable.
• This is because there would be a considerable
Deviation, i.e. the Measured Value would differ
from the Desired Value.
• Proportional action is one, where the corrective
action is proportional to the Deviation.
• Small deviation – small corrective action; large
deviation – large corrective action.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ACTION
1. If we replace the simple two step control by a valve,
whose opening varies as the deviation, then this type of
control will be more effective in coping up with varying
demand.
2. The final controlled element ie a valve is fully open or
fully closed with no intermediate state.
3. Since the amount of valve opening is proportional to the
change in level, this is called proportional action.
4. The opening of the valve is proportional to the deviation
from the desired value.
5. The transfer and transportation lag due to system
dynamics causes overshoot.
6. The difference between the peaks is called operating
Differential.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL (BANDS)
1. The proportional Band can be made wide or narrow
by just shifting the fulcrum away from or towards the
float.
2. Wide Proportional band means wide change in level,
there is hardly any movement of the valve.
3. This gives a coarse control, i.e. there is stability. The
OFF SET is inherent in simple proportional control.
4. The wide proportional band increases the off set.
5. The narrow proportional band gives a finer control,
but less stability ie it will keep hunting.
6. If it is very very narrow then the valve ceases to have
proportional action.

PROPORTIONAL CONTROL (BANDS)
PROPORTIONAL ACTION: WIDE PROPORTIONAL CONTROL (
BAND NARROW ) BAND

Proportional Control
Corrective action Fall in level
Fulcrum Sensor
(Float)
Desired value
Opening adeviation Deviation
Measured value
Input
Output or
Consumption
Proportional Band
• If we wish to vary the proportional control, we can
do so by varying the Proportional Band.
• The range of values, between the Full Open and
Full Shut position of the Control valve (Correcting
element), is called as the Proportional Band.
• If we shift the Fulcrum, we can change the ‘width’
of the Proportional Band.
• Shifting the Fulcrum to the left, widens the Band
and vice versa.
Proportional Band
Shift of
Small valve opening Fulcrum Fall in level
Large deviation Sensor

(Float)
Wider Band
Input
Output or
Consumption
Varying the Proportional Band
• The ‘wider’ the Band, the more effective and

Stable is the control action.
• However, too ‘wide’ a band increases the
Offset.
• Measured Value will ‘stabilise’, at some point
different from the Desired Value.
• Offset is ‘sustained’ Deviation.
INTEGRAL ACTION
• The system having an output which is proportional to the
product i.e. INPUT x TIME is called integral action.
• Integral action is provided by summing the error over time,
multiplying the sum by a gain.
• If, the error becomes positive or negative for an extended
period of time, the integral action will begin and make
changes to the controller output.
• If the error is zero, the output stays fixed at a value equal to
what it was when the error went to zero.
• Proportional control had a disadvantage of sustained deviation
called ‘off set’. The integral action removes this off set.
• Such a controller is primarily a proportional controller but
when added with integral action, then this can be said as
RESET FUNCTION added.

INTEGRAL ACTION
• Integral action can be termed as RESET ACTION CONTROL
• On board ships, the piston and Jacket Cooling temperatures
variation is large during load change i.e. maneuvering time.
Therefore the off set produced by the proportional control
is not acceptable.
• In such case Proportional+ integral action together is used.
• This combined effect would reset the control valve at a rate
proportional to the deviation from the set point.
• Thus for the large load changes, the speed of reset is rapid
initially and slows down as the deviation reduces.
• In this action, the controller output is the integral of the
error over time.

HOW THE INTEGRAL ACTION TAKES
PLACE
• Integral action uses a pilot piston controlled actuator.
• When water level falls, the pilot piston admits oil to the
bottom of the actuator.
• The control valve opens and remains opened till the water
level comes to the desired level.
• Thus the off set is removed.
• When the water level rises, the oil is admitted on top of
the actuator. The control valve closes and water level
returns to the desired value, thus again the off set is
removed.

Integral Action
• A narrow Band will improve
accuracy, however, it will increase
‘hunting’.
• The narrower the Band, the closer it
will approach On – Off Control.
• We need a wide Band, but without
Offset.
• Offset is removed by Integral action.
Integral Action
Fall in level
Oil Sensor
pressure (Float)
Desired value
Piston
valve
Input
Output or
Consumption
PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL
• When “P” action combines with “I”
action, the system works very
effectively.
• The “P” control action is proportional
to the deviation. The control valve
opening increases with increase in
deviation and vice versa.
• When added with Integral ,both the
actions are working on the final
element, the control valve regulates
the level of tank.
• The action continues till the desired
value is reached.
• The system comes to e quilibrium
state, when float is at desired value.
• But it does not happen in shortest
time interval.
• Thus brings the derivative action.

Proportional + Integral Action
• Thus, a combined action would give the

benefits of a wider Proportional Band
and the removal of Offset.
Proportional + Integral Action
Proportional
Action
Integral Action
Sensor
(Float)
Input
Output or
Consumption
DERIVATIVE ACTION
• DERIVATIVE ACTION is the one where the control is
proportional to the rate of change of the deviation. This
means that derivative action takes place where the rate
of change of deviation is higher due to the sudden
change in demand, i.e. sudden drop in level, and then
derivative action comes into the picture.
• The derivative action will effectively deal with sudden
variation of the measured value.
• The derivative action does not occur alone, it is
combined as (p+d) or (p+d+i).
• For this action the piston works inside an oil filled
cylinder called a dash pot.
• The spring is attached at the bottom with the cylinder
which tries to pull the cylinder down ward or upward.
DERIVATIVE ACTION
• Now consider when a fall in level has occurred, this
causes float to fall and on other side of the fulcrum, the
piston will be pulled up ward. Since the piston is inside
the highly viscous oil, the cylinder is initially dragged
upward, along the piston, against the spring action. This
causes the control valve to open fully, thus coping up
with the sudden increase in demand.
• Had the drop in level been gradual ,then the control valve
would have come to the closed position because of the
dash pot action of the cylinder.
• Consider a fall in level, the float in tank falls, the
derivative cylinder is pulled up against the spring action
which is attached in bottom of the cylinder. This makes
the control valve to open fully, therefore coping up with
the sudden increase in demand.
Proportional
Derivative Action
Action
Derivative Action
Sensor
(Float)
Input
Output or
Consumption
P I D Controller
Thus we have Three term control :
• Proportional
• Integral
• Derivative
PROPORTIONAL AND DERIVATIVE
ACTION

P + I + D Control
• The three term control is
the combination of P + I +
D.
• The proportional feature
ensures that the demand
change is dealt effectively.
• The integral action seeks
to eliminate the off set.
• The derivative action
comes into play when
there are rapid changes in
demand ie sudden
change in water level.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
• Safe in explosive atmosphere –especially on tankers, gas
carriers.
• No heat generated.
• Not affected by power supply variations.
• Can be applied directly to large & smaller actuators.
• Cheaper
• Clean.
• Clean dry air is available at required pressure.
• Specially on Tankers & Gas Carriers, pneumatic systems are
used as they are safe, no heat generation, & safe in explosive
atmosphere.
• Can be applied for large & smaller actuators
• They are clean, dry, and operated at adequate pressures.

FUNCTION OF ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
CONTROL IN M/E
• ELECTRO –PNEUMATIC CONTROL
• Function Of EP Control
• STARTING --- To operate the pilot air valve for starting of
M/E.
• SPEED SETTING - To control the governor action, which
control fuel to all the units of M/E.
• REVERSING -- air distributer cam for opening air in reverse
firing order. Also control the reverse servo motor.
• STOPPING - To Control the Cut Off valve - Exh gas spring
air.
• To Governor – to cut off fuel supply.
• To solenoid valve to shut off fuel.

Nozzle and Flapper System
• Signal conversion is from pressure to mechanical motion and vice versa
conversion is provided by a nozzle and flapper.
• A regulated supply of pressure usually over 20 psig, provides a source of
air through the restriction.
• Nozzle is open at the end where gap exists between the nozzle and
flapper& air escapes in the region.
• If the flapper moves down, the nozzle opening is closed and no air leaks.
The output signal pressure rises. If the flapper moves down and closes
off the nozzle opening, so that no air leaks, the signal pressure rises to
the supply pressure
• If the flapper moves away, the signal pressure drops because of the
leakage. As the flapper moves away, the signal pressure will drop
because of the leaking of air. If the flapper has moved away then the
signal pressure would stabilize at some value determined by the max
leak.
• The nozzle flapper is so adjusted that a small motion of the flapper
changes the output pressure
• Thus there is a relation between gap and signal pressure.
Nozzle and Flapper System

CURRENT TO PRESSURE CONVERTOR
(I/P)
• It is an important element in process control.
• When we want to use the low level electric current signal to
do any work, then it is easier to let the work be done by the
pneumatic signal.
• The I/P convertor gives us a linear way of translating the 4-
to20 mA current into 3- to 15 psig signal.
• By using the nozzle and flapper this can be achieved. in the
diagram , it is noticed that the current through the coil
produces a force that will tend to pull the flapper down close
off the gap.
• A high current produces a high pressure so that the device is
direct acting. The springs adjustment is done in such a way
that 4 mA correspond to 3 psig and 15 psig correspond to 20
mA.
I/P convertor reluctance type

Application of I/P
• Pneumatic Actuators: - A direct pneumatic actuator for
converting pressure signal into mechanical shaft
motion to control the opening/ closing of control valve.
• Solid – material hopper valve.( Grain Loading on the
conveyer belt and monitoring flow measurement.
• Fluid control in distillation column by operating the
control valve by temperature control.
• Feed water control in tank. by measuring the level and
controlling the demand.
• Temperature control.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
• When a core is inserted into an inductor Coil, its net inductance is
increased. Every new position of the core in the inductor produces a
different inductance. Therefore, the inductor and movable core
assembly can be used as a displacement sensor.
• A transducer known as LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT) is used for this purpose, which measures the
displacement by converting into proportional voltage/ current. LVDT
secondary voltage amplitude varies linearly with displacement.
• The Secondary coils are wound opposite to each other. There fore
the two voltages induces in the coils subtract. Thus differential
voltage is formed. When the core is centrally placed, the net voltage
is ZERO.
• When the core is moved in any side the net voltage developed would
increase and change in phase. This is called differential amplitude.
• Therefore, by measuring voltage amplitude and phase one can
determine the direction and extend of core motion.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

SOLAS rules for propulsion system control
• The propulsion machinery order given from the bridge must be indicated in the
engine control room and at the local maneuvering platform. For having a control of
propulsion machinery from navigational bridge, the system must comply as per
SOLAS chapter-II with the following requirements:
1. Starting and control of the speed must be provided and performed by single starting
lever or a dedicated push button switch.
2. Remote control is possible from only one location at a time, with indication as to
which location is in control both in navigational bridge and in engine control room.
3. The transfer of control must be possible from engine control room only.
4. No significant thrust change to take place during change over.
5. Remote control failure must be indicated with an alarm and still allow the machinery
control from local control.
6. Manual override must be provided for local control.
7. Emergency stop of the Main engine must be provided on the bridge.
8. Following indications of the propulsion plant must be displayed on the bridge along
with the alarm for the same:
1. ME alarms
2. Starting and control air.
3. Direction of rotation.
4. Pitch position (CPP system).
5. R.P.M of the engine.
9. Alarm power to be automatically changed over to standby mode (batteries) in case of
power failure of the ship occurs.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONTROLS ON
MAIN ENGINE
1. Jacket Cooling Water Temperature Control.
2. Piston Cooling Temperature Control.
3. Lube Oil Temperature Control.
4. Fuel Valve Cooling Water Temperature Control.
5. Fuel Oil Control By Governor.
6. Electronic Governor-Nor Control- Auto chief -4
1. Mechanical Governor.
2. Electric Governor.
7. Engine Speed Control Program.
8. M/E Control :-
1. Bridge Control
2. E.C.R Control
3. Emergency Control.
9. Fuel Oil Temperature Control By Viscotherm System
10. Load Dependent Cylinder Lubrication.
11. Fuel Oil Flow Controller
SAFETIES ON MAIN ENGINE
• SHUT DOWN and TRIPS
• M/E SLOW DOWN
• MAIN ENGINE ALARMS.
• STARTING INTERLOCKS

SHUT DOWN and TRIPS
1. Over Speed Trip @ 107 % Of Mcr.
2. Lub Oil Low Pressure - Trip (1 Bar)
3. Exh V/V Spring Air Low Pressure Trip ( 5.5 Bar)
4. Emergency Stops:-
1. Bridge Control.
2. Engine Control Console
3. Emergency Stand
5. Thrust Bearing L.O Temp High.( 85 Deg C)
6. Cam Shaft Lo Low Pressure. ( 1.5 Bar)
7. T/C Lub Oil Low Pressure .

M/E SLOW DOWN
• Lube Oil Cross Head Low Pressure.( 1.7 Bar )
• Jacket Cooling Water Low Pressure Low.
• Jacket Water Out Let High Temperature. (95 Deg C)
• Lube Oil M/E Inlet High Temp. (60 Deg C)
• Oil Mist Detector In Crank Case.
• Exhaust Gas Cyl 1-9 Out Let High Temp(450 Deg C)
• Scavenge Fire No 1 – 9 Unit.( 65 Deg C)
• Exhaust Valve Spring Air Low Pressure.
• Cylinder Oil Non Flow No1 – 9 Unit.
• Piston Lube Oil Out Let 1 – 9 High Temp.( 75 Deg C)

MAIN ENGINE ALARMS
• 1.M/E Inlet Lub Oil Pressure Low. • 12.Lo. T/C 1&2 Blower Side High
• 2.Fuel Oil Pressure Low. Temp.
• 3.Lub Oil Filter Diff Pressure • 13 Wrong Way Alarm
High. • 14.Cross Head Lo Low Pressure.
• 4.M/E Control Air Pressure Low. • 15.Jacket Cool Fw Inlet Low
• 5.M/E Start Air Pressure Low. Press.
• 6.Turning Gear • 16. M/E Safety Air Low Pressure.
Engage/Disengage. • 17 F.O. Inlet Low Temp.
• 7.M/E Lub Oil Inlet Temperature • 18. Critical Speed Alarm./Barred
High. Speed:
• 8.Exh Gas Cylinder Diviation • 19 .M/E LO SUMP TANK LOW
Alarm LEVEL.
• 9.Fuel Oil Leakage Tank High Level • 20. FUEL CAM ABNORMAL
Alarm ALARM
• 10.Fuel Oil Viscosity High/Low • 21. SENSOR ABNORMAL
• 11.Lo T/C 1&2 Turbine Side High • 22. ENGINE START FAIL ALARM
Temp.
M/E STARTING INTERLOCKS
• Following interlocks are placed in the starting of M/E :-
1. Turning gear must be disengaged. ( Limit Switch )
2. Start air interlock block is in open position. ( Limit Switch)
3. RUNNING DIRECTION INTERLOCK:- Complete reversing of cams is
achieved. That is in end position either in AHD or AST. ( Limit
Switch)Correct running direction is done. Running direction
interlock senses this correct reversal. ( Limit Switch)
4. Sufficient Lube Oil Pressure 5-6 Bar ( Pr Switch )
5. Sufficient spring air pressure i.e. 7 kg/cm sq ( Pr Switch )
6. Aux Blowers are in ‘AUTO , Mode. (Selector Sw), to maintain
scavenge air pressure, and scavenge air pressure switch activates.
7. Scavenge air limiter governs control of the fuel to be released.
This can be over ridden.
8. Safety cut out device is set to ensure that the lube oil, jacket
cooling water and piston cooling water pressure are above the
predetermined setting.
9. Air and fuel never injected together fuel is injected after the
starting air shut off
BRIDGE CONTROL SYSTEM
• It consists of :-
1. Engine order Telegraph.
2. Speed sensing from the engine fly wheel.
3. Control unit
4. Solenoid controls( Start, Stop, Ahead, Astern)
fitted in the E/Room.
5. Load programming unit.
6. Alarm & indication of low start air pressure etc.

FUNDAMENTALS BRIDGE
MANEOUVERING SYSTEM

REQUIREMENTS BRIDGE
MANEOUVERING SYSTEM
• According to the LRS guidelines the BMS for a vessel must meet the
following characteristics.
1. It must be robust, simple to use and must not detract the watch keeper from
his primary responsibilities.
2. It must confirm to all classification guidelines and be capable of being
reversed, stopped and speed/RPM be regulated from a single point of
control.
3. All alarms , shut down/ slow down be displayed and monitored from an
integrated control system on the bridge which must be fully compatible to
the particular main engine and engine Room controls.
4. Main engine must be operated from ( BRIDGE, ECR, EMCY STAND) controls
and each of them isolated from each other.
5. Emergency /Local Mode of operation must by pass all safeties and capable of
starting/stopping& running the main engine unhindered.
6. The transfer from Bridge control to ECR control and vice versa must be
simple and not hinder the Navigation.
7. The vessel must be capable of 12 starts. 6 in ahead and 6 in astern direction
alternatively within
8. Means of Auto shut down, auto slow down, emergency stops must be as per
the instructional manual maximum to minimum start air pressure.
Transfer to bridge control and operation
• After preliminary checks of M/E, the control shifted to
Bridge Control. All safety interlocks confirmed.( i.e. LOW LO
Pr, Over speed, Emergency Stop etc).
• In case of failed start , the start air is kept on & Scavenge air
limiter is bypassed, so that fuel start is better. Once the
engine is started, the speed is increased as per bridge
order.
• Quick pass through Critical speed range ( around 8-12 % of
MCR speed) is done by releasing more fuel other wise
torsional shaft resonance and excessive vibration of shaft
may occur may occur.
• Critical speed is monitored by critical speed alarm which
latches on after a certain timer.

REMOTE CONTROL OF M/E MIMIC
DIAGRAM IN ECR
• Mimic diagram displays the functioning of remote control

system. The indicators show the sequence and changes
taking place during maneuvering.
– STOP indicates the position of the bridge telegraph.
– Ahd /Ast Command shows the request from bridge, not the engine
or cam shaft.
REMOTE CONTROL OF M/E
Maneuvering System
• Maneuvering system is of Electric Pneumatic
Design. It is designed for :
1. from Emergency Stand.
2. from Engine Control Console.
3. Remote Control From BRIDGE
• The system Contains three sub –systems.
1. The Regulating system.
2. Reversing System.
3. Safety System

REGULATING SYSTEM
• REGULATING SYSTEM : For start, stop and control the engine. The start /
stop functions are controlled independently.
– START SET POINT: Indicates the governor setting to allow sufficient fuel
for starting. This signal is maintained for 6 seconds.
– START SOL V/V: Indicates the start air system has activated.
– STOP SOL V/V : Indicates the starting air has started the engine above
the set point of starting.
• Speed Setting during remote control: controlled by the control handle on
the console which sends Electronic/ pneumatics signal to the governor. The
speed is maintained on varying loads. During Control from Emergency
Stand the governor is disconnected. And speed is controlled directly.
• SET POINT LIMITER: Indicates that the Bridge engine speed request has not
been allowed due to load program or slow down has occurred. This can be
over ridden at Bridge.
• CANCEL LIMITER GOVERNOR: Indicates the position of scavenge air limiter.
This happens in caseOperational
engine fails to start after three automatic started 271
level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation
REVERSING SYSTEM
Two Pneumatic valves ( AHD & Ast ). They control
the reversing cylinders of the starting air
distributer and air cylinders for reversing the fuel
pump rollers.
– AHD/AST S/V: Indicates the position of the ahd/ast
solenoid valves.
– RUNNING DIRECTION INTERLOCK:- This prevents a
main engine start in the reverse direction to that
intended.
– WRONG WAY ALARM:- If the interlock has failed to
prevent the main engine to start in direction reverse to
the telegraph order then the alarm is activated to draw
the attention of the operator for intervention

SAFETY SYSTEM
• The control air signal is led to the puncture valve
of each fuel pump, thereby cutting off the
delivery of high pressure fuel oil, after which the
engine stops.
• This comes into operation when ever the main
engine trip conditions as listed is activated or
emergency stop is activated by the operator.
• Slow down function with interface with
regulating system preludes the shut down and
can be considered a part of the safety system.

SPEED MEASURING DEVICES
1. DC TYPE – TACOMETER
2. AC TYPE – TACOMETER
3. TOOTHED ROTOR TACHOMETER
4. MOVING MAGNET TYPE
5. INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH
6. INFRARED SPEED DETECTOR.

TYPES OF TACHO SIGNALS.
• There are two types of signals.
– In Conventional Analog signal , an amplitude
varies from minimum to maximum.
– Discrete signals provide a finite out put. i.e. 1 or 0.
• Proximity sensor is a discrete sensor, which
can sense when object comes near it.

DC TYPE TACHOMETER
• These are driven by the shaft whose speed is being
measured.
• DC type tachogenerator has a permanent magnet which
provides magnetic field and has a wound armature with a
commutator and designed to give an output voltage
proportional to speed.
• The output is taken to a moving coil type instrument
calibrated in rpm.
• An output voltage is produced in the winding which is
sinusoidal whose magnitude is proportional to the rotor
speed. A commutator and brushes are fixed to the rotor to
convert the a.c.
• The direction of the shaft rotation controls the direction of
current flow through the coil and hence the pointer shows
the direction of shaft rotation as well as rpm
AC TYPE – TACHOGENERATOR
1. The stator carries three sets of windings .
2. The rotor consists of a thin copper cup rotating about
a soft magnet core.
3. When the shaft is stationary, there is no output from
the coils .
4. The cup is being rotated at constant speed and ac
output depending upon the direction of rotation is
produced.
5. The output is rectified and sent to special switching
circuit containing reed switches.
6. The out put is dc 40 volts, 10 ma /300 rpm. Thus
ahead and reverse rpm is indicated on the
galvanometer
TOOTHED ROTOR TACHOMETER
GENERATOR
• This tachometer generator consists of a metallic toothed rotor
mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured.
• A magnetic pickup is placed near the toothed rotor.
• A magnetic pickup consists of a permanent magnet with a coil
wound round it.
• When the rotor rotates, an emf is induced in the pickup coil.
• The output is in the form of pulses. The frequency of the pulses of
induced voltage will depend upon the number of teeth of the rotor
and its speed of rotation.
• Since the number of teeth are known, the speed of rotation can be
determined by measuring the frequency of pulses with an
electronic counter.
– hence speed = pulses per second/number of teeth.

SPEED MEASURING DEVICES FOR
TURBOCHARGER
• MOVING MAGNET TYPE
• INDUCTIVE TYPE SENSOR
• INDUCTIVE TYPE PROXIMITY SWITCH.

MOVING MAGNET TYPE
• The sensing element is a rod, which is rigidly
coupled to the device whose velocity is to be
measured.
• The rod is a permanent magnet.
• There is a coil surrounding the permanent
magnet. The motion of the magnet induces a
voltage in the coil and the amplitude of the
voltage is directly proportional to the velocity.
• The polarity of the out put is determined by the
direction of motion. Also the reluctance varies
directly proportional rate of change of air gap and
hence velocity.
• The out put voltage is linearly proportional to
velocity. Such speed measuring devices are used
for measuring speed oflevelthe
Operational turbochargers.
performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 280
INDUCTIVE TYPE SENSOR
• Works on the principle of the change in inductance of a coil
when a metallic object passes near by it.
• A circuit has a transistorized oscillator circuit inside the sensor.
• When a metallic (steel, iron, aluminum, tin, copper etc) object
is near the coil, alternating magnet field produced by the coil
in the target.
• This produces circulating eddy currents inside the material.
These eddy currents have the loading effects which decreases
the amplitude of the out put from the oscillator of the sensor.
• If the target approaches the sensor, these eddy currents
increase beyond a certain value, the amplitude would cause
oscillator to cease to oscillate, which makes the trigger circuit
to switch the output to ON and control a relay or a switch.
INDUCTIVE TYPE PROXIMITY SWITCH
• Are used to measure engine speed by two pick ups, which
are situated next to the turning wheel.
• Tacho signal processing is carried out by the dedicated input
processor in computer and from here the RPM signal for
speed control of main engine is passed for maneuvering.
• The tacho selector checks both signals whether they are
with in the valid range. If tacho fails signal goes to zero in
which case the other tacho will be selected.
• In few cases when tacho signal gives increased out put, EGS
will regulate engine speed according to the signal and engine
speed will be reduced.
• Hence over speeding is reduced.
• Failed Tacho generates a signal for alarm as SPEED PICK UP
FAIL.
GOVERNOR AND CONTROL
• The purpose of the governor is to control the
engine speed from no load to full rated speed.
Governor helps to maintain a constant speed
irrespective of load and power changes.
• To regulate ENGINE SPEED as per reference by
controlling the ENGINE FUEL SERVO .

GOVERNOR FUNCTIONS
There fore it has two functions :
1. Speed regulating function.
2. Fuel actuating functions
• REGULATING FUNCTIONS :
a) Speed reference computation.
b) Speed measurement.
c) Limit the command signal to fuel actuating function.
d) Display Data Values.
• ACTUATING FUNCTION :
a) Sensing of fuel rack position command from the
regulator.
b) Positioning of fuel racks according to command.
c) Automatic tuning of servo system.
GOVERNOR CHARECTERISTICS
• DROOP - Fall in speed due to load change is
called DROOP. That is drop in speed from stable
no load condition to stable full load speed
condition.
• DEAD BAND - It is a band or range in speed only
after which the governor will respond.
• HUNTING – It is the fluctuation (hunting) in
engine speed which is caused during over speed
/ low speed if the governor is too sensitive.

FUNCTIONING OF GOVERNOR
• Load increase on engine causes
speed drop Momentarily.
• The speed drop is sensed by the
speed measuring device and is
compared with the set value.(SPEED
SETTING).
• The deviation in speed is converted
into an out put and controls the
servo amplifier, which is a hydraulic
device.
• The output of this controls the
servo motor , which simply, quickly
and effectively controls the fuel
injection by positioning the fuel
rack, thus increase the fuel to meet
the increase in load.

ELECTRIC GOVERNOR
• Since the hydraulic governors has operational problem such
as, Low oil level, incorrect viscosity airlock, wrong
adjustments, excessive oil temperature and erratic linkages
movements. Therefore Electric Governor came into
operation.
• Rotational speed is sensed by proximity switch mounted on
flywheel. Frequency pulses converted in the rectifier to d.c
voltage proportional to speed by Proximity Switch
• Set value is applied to the controller and measured value is
compared.
• Error signal is amplified, converted to hydraulic signal and
operate the servo motor.
• To reduce hunting and off set, the controlle r has reset
integral action via a feed back.
• This actuates the fuel lever/ linkage.
ELECTRIC GOVERNOR
• The load sensing input signal 1
senses the load 12 and sends the
input signal to the setting control unit
4.
• The speed sensing input signal 2
which senses the speed at the engine
flywheel (11) and sends the speed
signal to the comparator amplifier
unit 5.
• The setting control unit 4 has
settings for the droop (6), speed
setting signal (7).
• The comparator/amplifier control
unit compares. The input signal with
the reference settings and Sends the
output signal to the actuator (3) to
Change the rack position of the fuel
pump. (9

M/E ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SPEED
CONTROL SERVO -MECHANISM
• Speed signal is obtained from proximity switch.
AC voltage proportional to frequency is converted
into d.c voltage.
• Reference d.c voltage of opposite polarity, which
is known as desired operating speed is fed to the
controller.
• These two voltages are connected to the input of
electric amplifier.
• If these voltages are equal and opposite, they
cancel. Thus no output is from the amplifier.
• If they are different, then the amplifier sends a
signal through the controller to Electro Hydraulic
convertor which in turn control the servo motor
and reposition the fuel racks.
• The function of the load sensing feed to the
governor is to correct the fuel supply to the prime
mover before a speed change.
• Load sensing device anticipate the change in load.
A signal is sent to the governor if load change has
taken. LOAD sensing is done electronically
ELECTRONIC DIGITAL GOVERNOR
COMPONENT
• Power supply unit 24 volts supply.
• Speed pick ups: Inductive type proximity switches.
• Scavenge air pressure sensor : A transducer senses
the scav pressure and applied to limit the fuel
injection according to scavenge pressure. Scav pr
transducer converts 0-4 bar pressure to 4-20 mA
current.
• Actuating unit
• DGSU unit.

ELECTRONIC DIGITAL GOVERNOR

MAIN ENGINE FRESH WATER
COOLING SYSTEM
• The fresh water cooling system is the system for cooling the engine and may be
in two circuits.
• One system cools the engine cylinders, including the liners, cylinder heads and
turbo chargers, while the other system cools the piston.
• Piston cooling in some engines is done by oil.
• A heater is provided for preheating of the cylinder prior to starting to reduce
the stress and enable easier maneuvering. Heating the CW is done by electric
heaters or steam passing through the coils.
• The CW is then circulated through the cylinder jacket, pistons and cylinder
heads.
• If the engine is preheated, it can easily reach the self ignition temperature of
the fuel, thus firing immediately. Also when engine is warm, the clearances are
correct, thus lubrication is made easier.
• Thus reduce wear and tear during starting.Also less starting air is required
• Cooling Fresh water is fed from expansion tank , through jacket water p/p,
through preheated . Jacket water is cooled by the sea water.
• Advantages of oil cooling of piston: No additional PITON COOLING p/ps
required. Leakage will not contaminate Lube oil in the sump.
M/E JACKET COOLING WATER
TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Cascade Control
• To prevent thermal shock on the main engine specially during
maneuvering, (load variation) control of the m/e outlet water
temperature is maintained to the desired value.
• Jacket cooling water outlet temperature is affected due to the
variations in sea water temperature.
• The control system uses a combination of cascade control
and split range control.
• Two controllers are used :-
1. Master controller.
2. Slave controller.

Cascade Control function
• There are two controllers in the system: a Master controller
& Slave Controller. The slave controller measures and
controls the level in tank No1.
• The same controlled condition is sensed at two different
points in the circuit.
• The purpose of the cascade control is to deal with the large
capacities involved, which would make the normal control
difficult.
• The Master controller senses the level in Tank No 2.
• A rise in demand will cause the level of Tank No 2 to fall.
• Master controller changes the set point of Slave controller.
• The Slave will raise the water level in tank 1 and so fill up
the tank 2.

SPLIT RANGE CONTROL
• Master controller senses the out let water temperature of the m/e.
whereas slave controller senses the jacket water cooler water
outlet temperature.
• Out let/inlet temperatures are sensed by temperature transmitters.
• Master controller after sensing the outlet temperature & sends
signal to the slave controller.
• The out put from the master controller is used as the set point of
the slave controller.
• Thus the slave controller actually controls the controlled condition.
• In Jacket water cooling system, the controlled condition is the CW
temperature, which is sensed at two different points by two
controllers.
• Main engine water out let temperature is sensed by master
controller. But the jacket water cooler water temperature is sensed
by the slave controller.
• Thus the engine and the cooler are representing large capacities.

SPLIT RANGE CONTROL
• The change in sea water temperature is sensed at the cooler out let by
the slave controller which immediately adjusts the CW flow, without
waiting for the change to affect the main engine outlet temperature.
• The change in the engine load is sensed as a change in the CW outlet
from the engine by the master controller, which adjusts the set point of
the slave controller and the slave controller controls the CW flow
accordingly.
• Therefore, the lag due to two large capacities can be minimized, and a
finer control is achieved.
• The slave controller compares the temperature of inlet and outlet of
the m/e.
• Any deviation found in turn controls two actuator valves which are
arranged for split range control.
• If the jacket cooling water temperature is low, the sea water control
valve is shut and steam control valve is operated to open steam to the
heater. And vise versa.
• Both master and slave controllers are two term (p+i) controller.
• This way the m/e jacket out let temperature is controlled.
M/E LUB OIL TEMPERATURE CONTROL

• Lubrication reduces friction of the moving mechanical
parts and removes heat from the components as a
result the oil becomes hot. So it needs to be cooled for
further circulation. It is desired to be maintained at the
set point.
• Cooling water flows through the tubes and LO is
around the tubes and being cooled.
• Therefore it picks up heat from the tubes. And cooling
water becomes warm as it leaves the cooler.
• The temperature of the lube oil out let must be
maintained.
• Therefore the cold water inlet flow rate through the
tubes is controlled in order to maintain the
temperature.
• The temperature Transmitter senses the inlet temperature to M/E , and
sends the signal to the PI controller which in turn controls the actuator
valve air signal. The temperature controller compares the actual inlet
temperature with the set point .If deviation exists, the controller will vary
the air signal to the actuator and operate the control valve to opens or
closes the flow of LO from the cooler accordingly.
• More cooling water flowing will lower the temperature of LO leaving the
cooler.
• Temp Tx senses the out let temperature of LO and produces the feedback
signal and sent to the summing net work and added with the set point
signal,
• The output of the summing network may be positive or negative. This
means the resulting actuating signal is the difference between the set point
and feedback.
• If the temperature is low then more oil will bypass through the cooler, and
its temp will increase. Should the temperature rise above the desired value,
less oil is by passed, in other words large quantity being sent through the
cooler.


WHAT A SYNCHRO IS
A SIMPLE SYNCHRO SYSTEM CAN BE
VERY EASILY UNDERSTOOD IF YOU
THINK OF IT AS THE ELECTRICAL
EQUIVALENT OF A LONG SHAFT OF
METAL WHICH TRANSMITS MOTION
FROM ONE POINT TO ANOTHER
METAL BAR
A B

THERE IS ONLY ONE THING WRONG WITH
THE SOLID SHAFT METHOD OF
TRANSMITTING DIAL READINGS AND DOING
WORK FROM A DISTANCE. THE FAULT IS
THAT IN A GREAT MANY CONDITIONS IT
WOULD BE VERY DIFFICULT TO RUN A
STRAIGHT SHAFT BETWEEN TWO POINTS.
SOONER OR LATER SOMETHING WOULD
GET IN THE WAY AND THAT SOMETHING
MIGHT NOT LIKE HAVING A HOLE PUNCHED
THROUGH IT.

ALTERNATIVE
ARRANGEMENT
MADE BY REPLACING
STRAIGHT SHAFT
WITH SUITABLE
SYSTEM OF MANY
SMALL SHAFTS
GEARED TOGETHER

TO THIS PROBLEM OF TRANSMITTING
DIAL READINGS OVER A LONG
DISTANCE, OR OF TURNING A SMALL
LOAD OVER A LONG DISTANCE, THE
SIMPLE ANSWER IS THE SYNCHRO.
A SYNCHRO IS A GADGET WHICH

LOOKS LIKE AN ELECTRIC MOTOR,
EXCEPT THAT IT HAS FIVE WIRES
COMING OUT OF IT.

 WHEN TWO SYNCHROS ARE CONNECTED
TOGETHER, AND TO A SOURCE OF A.C.
VOLTAGE, THEY FORM TOGETHER A
SYNCHRO SYSTEM. SUCH A SYSTEM ACTS
LIKE A FLEXIBLE SHAFT FROM WHICH ALL
OBJECTIONABLE FRICTION HAS BEEN
REMOVED.

ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRO
OVER A MECHANICAL
CONNECTION
 THE CONTROLLING SHAFT AND THE SHAFT
WHICH IS CONTROLLED CAN BE SITUATED A
LONG DISTANCE APART.
 ANY OBSTACLE CAN EASILY BE BYPASSED

BY LEADING THE CONNECTING WIRES
ROUND IT.
 A SYNCHRO SYSTEM USES VERY LITTLE

ELECTRICAL POWER, AND DOES AWAY WITH
THE GREAT COMPLICATIONS OF A PURELY
MECHANICAL CONNECTING SYSTEM.
CUTAWAY VIEW OF
TRANSMITTER

THE TORQUE TRANSMITTER IS MADE UP
OF TWO MAJOR PARTS-THE STATOR AND
THE ROTOR. THE STATOR CONSISTS OF AN
UPPER END CAP, A SHELL, AND A LOWER
END CAP. THE INNER SURFACE OF THE
SHELL IS SLOTTED, AND THESE SLOTS
CONTAIN THE STATOR WINDING.

THE STATOR WINDING IS ACTUALLY THREE
SEPARATE WINDINGS SPACED 120° APART.
THREE LEADS, ONE FROM EACH OF THE
THREE WINDINGS, ARE CONNECTED
TOGETHER TO FORM A COMMON
CONNECTION INSIDE THE SHELL.

THE REMAINING THREE LEADS ARE
BROUGHT OUT SEPARATELY, AND ARE
LABELLED S1, S2 AND S3. IT IS THESE
THREE LEADS-S1, S2 AND S3 WHICH
TRANSMIT AN ELECTRICAL SIGNAL TO THE
INDICATOR WHENEVER THE TRANSMITTER
SHAFT IS TURNED.

STATOR WINDINGS

SHELL AND STATOR WINDINGS
WITH LOWER END CAP

SYNCHRO INDICATOR
CUTAWAY VIEW

SYNCHRO SCHEMATICS

MAGNETIC FIELDS
 TO HELP YOU UNDERSTAND HOW
SYNCHROS WORK, YOU SHOULD FIRST
REVIEW SOME THEORY ON MAGNETS AND
MAGNETIC FIELDS.
 THINK BACK, FIRST, TO THE BAR MAGNET,

AND TO THE CONVENTIONAL WAY OF
REPRESENTING ITS MAGNETIC FIELD .
OBSERVE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ITS
POLES AND THE DIRECTION OF THE
MAGNETIC FIELD.

MAGNETIC FIELDS
NOTICE THAT THE MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE FLOW

FROM THE SOUTH POLE TO THE NORTH POLE INSIDE
THE MAGNET. THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC
FIELD CAN THEREFORE BE REPRESENTED BY AN
ARROW POINTING IN THE DIRECTION OF THE NORTH
POLE, AS INDICATED.
This means REPULSION This means ATTRACTION

REVERSING
OF
STATOR
CONNECTIONS
S1 AND S3

REVERSING
ROTOR
CONNECTIONS
R1 AND R2

CYCLIC SHIFT OF STATOR CONNECTIONS
REPRESENTATION OF SYNCHRO
DIFFERENTIALS
SET UP FOR
SUBTRACTING

EXAMPLE NO. 1
EXAMPLE NO. 1
TRANSMITTER AND DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMITTER ARE
IN SERIES, MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE STATOR OD DT
WILL BE PARALLEL TO MAGNETIC FILD IN THE STATOR
OF THE TX
RESULTANT ROTOR FIELD WILL LINE UP
WITH THE STATOR FIELD, BUT WILL
HAVE THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
DT ROTOR FIELD IS POSITIONED AT 1800 , THE STATOR
FIELD IN Rx WILL BE POSITIONED AT ZERO DEGREES

THE ROTOR OF INDICATOR WILL THEREFORE
ALSO POSITION ITSELF AT ZERO DEGREES 348
EXAMPLE NO. 2
Follow it on the schematic
EXAMPLE NO. 2
EXAMPLE NO. 3
EXAMPLE NO. 3
TRANSMITTER AND DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMITTER ARE
IN SERIES, MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE STATOR OD DT
WILL BE PARALLEL TO MAGNETIC FILD IN THE STATOR
OF THE TX
THE RESULTING ROTOR FIELD WILL LINE UP
WITH THE STATOR FIELD, BUT WILL AGAIN
HAVE THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS POSITIONED AT -
450 IN RELOATION TO R2, AND IS
POINTING DOWNWARDS
THE INDICATOR STATOR FIELD WILL BE ACTING ALONG
A LINE AT -450 RELATIVE TO ITS S2 WINDING, BUT
POINTING UPWARDS
THE ROTOR OF THE INDICATOR WILL BE
ATTRACTED TO THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF ITS
STATOR, AND WILL THEREFORE ALSO
POSITION ITSELF AT -450
EXAMPLE NO. 4
EXAMPLE NO. 4
Set up for
ADDITION

EXAMPLE NO. 1 361
EXAMPLE NO. 1
EXAMPLE NO. 2
EXAMPLE NO. 2
WORK
THESE
OUT

WORK
THESE
OUT

ROTOR OF CONTROL
TRANSFORMER
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS OF
CONTROL TRANSFORMER
SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY

SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY
SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY
SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY

THE ROTOR OF THE CONTROL LIES AT RIGHT
ANGLES TO THE STATOR MAGNETIC FIELD. THE
INDUCED VOLTAGE IN THE ROTOR IS
THEREFORE ZERO
AS THE ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER TURNS FROM
ZERO DEGREES TO 900, THE INDUCED VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE ROTOR OF THE CONTROL TRANSFORMER
INCREASES FROM ZERO UNTIL IT REACHES ITS
MAXIMUM VALUE AT 900
THE INDUCED VOLTAGE ACROSS THE ROTOR OF THE
CONTROL TRANSFORMER CAN BE BROUGHT TO ZERO BY
TURNING THE CONTROL TRANSFORMER ROTOR THROUGH
THE SAME NUMBER OF DEGREES, AND THE SAME
DIRECTION, AS THE ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER
WHEN THE ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER IS TURNED
ANTI-CLOCKWISE, THE INDUCED VOLTAGES IN THE
ROTOR OF CT WILL BE OUT OF PHASE WITH THE A.C
SUPPLY TO THE ROTOR OF TRANSMITTER 377
INDUCED VOLTAGE BROUGHT BACK TO ZERO BY
TURNING THE ROTOR THROUGH THE SAME NUMBER
OF DEGREES, AND IN THE SAME DIRECTION, AS THE
ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER
STEERING
GEAR
STEERING GEAR
• STEERS SHIP IN REQUIRED DIRECTION
• USES A RUDDER OPERATED BY STEERING WHEEL
• SYSTEM IN THREE PARTS:
1. CONTROL
2. POWER
3. TRANSMISSION
• CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CONTROL SYSTEM
1. MANUAL
2. MECHANICAL
3. TELEMOTOR
4. ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC
5. ALL ELECTRICAL

CLASSIFICATION
1. MANUAL – RUDDER TURNED MANUALLY E.G. AS OPERATED
IN A WHALER
2. MECHANICAL – MOVEMENT TRANSMITTED FROM WHEEL TO
RUDDER BY MECHANICAL MEANS LIKE CHAIN
3. TELEMOTOR – MOVEMENT TRANSMITTED BY HYDRAULIC
FLUID
4. ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC – CONTROL SYSTEM IS ELECTRICAL,
POWER SYSTEM IS HYDRAULIC
5. ALL ELECTRICAL – BOTH CONTROL AND POWER SYSTEMS ARE
ELECTRICAL

REQUIREMENTS
• DEPENDABLE AND SAFE OPERATION IN ALL CONDITIONS
• REQUIRED ANGLE AT ALL SPEEDS
• HARD PORT TO HARD STBD IN MIMIMUM TIME (35O PORT

TO 35O STBD IN 28 SECONDS)
• MAIN TO AUXILIARY STEERING SYSTEM IN MINIMUM TIME

(45 SECONDS)

CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
• CONTROL FROM SEVERAL POSITIONS
• MINIMUM OVERALL SIZE AND WEIGHT
• MINIMUM SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE
• SIMPLE DESIGN
• EASY OPERATION
• LONG SERVICE LIFE

SELECTION POSITIONS
• SPEED OF RUDDER • PRIMARY - BRIDGE
• TORQUE EXERTED BY • SECONDARY –
RUDDER WHEELHOUSE
• MAXIMUM RUDDER ANGLE • LOCAL/ EMERGENCY - AFT
STEERING POSITION (ASP)

MODES OF STEERING
NON-FOLLOW UP
• RUDDER TURNS WHEN WHEEL IS MOVED
• RUDDER STOPS ONLY WHEN WHEEL IS CENTERED
FOLLOW-UP
• RUDDER FOLLOWS THE WHEEL
• E.G WHEEL MOVED TO 15O PORT → RUDDER WILL MOVE TO
15O PORT AND STOP
AUTOMATIC
• STEERING CONTROLLED BY SIGNALS RECEIVED FROM MASTER
GYRO
• SHIP MAINTAINED ON SELECTED COURSE IN AUTO

Effect of Negative Feed Back
• 1. Negative feedback • 5. Smooth operation of
achieve stability. the system.
• 2. Controlled device - • 6. Improved frequency
Quick settling time. response.
• 3. Removes hunting of • 7. Less amplitude
the system. distortion.
• 4. Removes oscillation • 8. Decreases the
–damped effect voltage gain.
• 9. More linear
operation

MANUAL MODE
• IT IS ALSO CALLED HELM
CONTROL.
• OPERATOR SETS THE
DESIRED RUDDER ANGLE
THROUGH THE STEERING
WHEEL.
• REST OF THE CONTROL
SYSTEM IS CLOSED LOOP
CONTROL WITH –VE
FEEDBACK TO ACHIEVE
THE DESIRED RUDDER
ANGLE.
HELM CONTROL
• Transmitting & Receiver synchros are used.
• Microprocessor based circuits are used to receive the Helm
order;
• Rudder position feed back is fed and compared.
• For this purpose the operational amplifiers are used. This
signal is then amplified by the power amplifier.
• The electronic controller control circuit starts correcting for
deviation by adjusting the proportional band resistors and
reset action
• Whose output controls the solenoid valves within the
electro-hydraulic unit.
• The electro hydraulic unit directs the hydraulic pressure to
the cylinders that houses the rams/pistons linked to the
rudder stock.
HELM CONTROL
• The follow up element, which is normally a
potentiometer or a rotary transformer, is moved to
the angular motion of the rudder stock the ram it
self.
• The negative feed back signal to the control unit is
given to de-stoke the pump and stop the rudder at
the ordered angle. Or zeroes the operational
amplifier and bring the solenoid valve in the neutral
position.
• An error signal in the feedback system caused by a
new helm or auto pilot order or motion of the
rudder due to external forces reactivates the
control system.
Disturbing forces
• Both rudder and ship are acted by external
forces.
• Other signal which influence the control of the
rudder are:-
– The ships speed
– The set course
– The rate of change of course.
– The present position of the rudder.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL
• The above disturbing forces are estimated by the autopilot (

electronic controller).
• Estimated the helm order to do the course corrections to mitigate
the effect of the disturbing forces ( to maintain the desired course).
• Transmits the helm order to the microcontroller circuit instead of
the hand wheel (bypassed) which is kept locked in midship position.
• Course measurement and feedback to the autopilot is done by the
gyro compass.
• Operator only decides the course the ship needs to maintain.
RUDDER
• FIN OR SPADE LIKE PROJECTION BELOW THE WATERLINE
• PLACED AS REAR AS POSSIBLE
• HUNG ON A SOLID CIRCULAR SHAFT CALLED STOCK
• TYPES
1. UNBALANCED
2. SEMI-BALANCED
3. BALANCED

UNBALANCED

SEMI-BALANCED

BALANCED

TELEMOTOR SYSTEM
• ALL HYDRAULIC
• CONTROL CIRCUIT = MIXTURE OF 50% WATER AND 50%
GLYCERINE (now hydraulic oil)
• POWER CIRCUIT = HYDRAULIC OIL LIKE OMD 111, OEP 69, OM
33, OM 58, OM 100

COMPONENTS/ LAYOUT (TM)
1. STEERING WHEEL
2. TRANSMITTER
3. RECEIVER
4. PUMP
5. FLOATING LEVER
6. RAMS
7. HUNTING ROD
8. LINKAGES

ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC
• MOST COMMON TYPE
• ORDER OF WHEEL
+ COMMUNICATED BY ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
+ EXECUTED BY HYDRAULIC POWER
• COMPONENTS ARE SIMILAR TO THAT OF TELEMOTOR SYSTEM

EXCEPT
+ TRANSMITTER/ RECEIVER ARE ELECTRICAL

COMPONENTS/ LAYOUT (EH)
SIGNAL FROM WHEEL
CONTROLS DISCHARGE OF
PUMP
SIGNAL FROM WHEEL

CONTROLS DISCHARGE OF
PUMP

TRANSMITTER (TM)
2 TYPES
1. SINGLE CYLINDER FLUID ON
BOTH SIDES
2. DOUBLE CYLINDER MOVE IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
• PLUNGERS FITTED WITH
RACKS
• MOVED BY STEERING
WHEEL

RECEIVER (TM)
• USUALLY IN PAIRS
• CYLINDER DIVIDED IN TWO
PARTS
• SLIDES ON TWO FIXED
HOLLOW RAMS
• PIPELINE CONNECTED TO
EACH RAM THROUGH SD
VALVE
• MOVEMENT OF STEERING
WHEEL CAUSES
MOVEMENT OF CYLINDERS

HUNTING GEAR OPERATION
• RECEIVER MOVES
• FLOATING LEVER TILTS

PUMP
• RUDDER MOVES TO
REQUIRED ANGLE
• HUNTING GEAR
CENTRES PUMP

CHARGING CREEP TEST
• FILL UP OIL • DETECT LEAKS
• OCCASIONS • OCCASIONS
1. INSTALLATION
1. ON INSTALLATION
2. WEEKLY WHEN
2. AFTER ROUTINES/
OPERATIONAL
MAINTENANCE
3. BEFORE SAILING
3. TOP UP IN CASE OF 4. AFTER CHARGING AND
LEAKAGE MAINTENANCE

CREEP TEST PROCEDURE
• DISCONNECT STEERING PUMP
• ENSURE SYSTEM FULLY CHARGED
• ISOLATE RAM CONNECTED TO STBD SIDE (I.E. OPPOSITE OF
THAT BEING TESTED)
• TURN STEERING WHEEL TO HARD PORT AND HOLD FOR 30
MINUTES
• MONITOR PRESSURE DROP/ CREEP IN RECEIVER - INDICATES
LEAK IN SYSTEM
• REPEAT FOR OTHER SIDE
• ON COMPLETION, CONNECT STEERING PUMP

ACTIONS IN EMERGENCY
• AIM - RESTORE STEERING IMMEDIATELY
• CHANGE OVER TO SECONDARY CONTROL
• IF REQUIRED, CHANGE OVER TO LOCAL/ EMERGENCY

CONTROL
• IDENTIFY CAUSE
• RECTIFY
• RESTORE

ROUTINES
DAILY THREE MONTHLY
• EXAMINE EXTERNALLY • EXAMINE PUMP
• TURN STEERING PUMP • CHECK RUDDER ANGLE
INDICATORS
WEEKLY
• DISMANTLE VALVE CHEST
• EXAMINE PIPELINES SIX MONTHLY
• TEST ALL MODES • EXAMINE VALVES
MONTHLY YEARLY
• ANALYSE OIL SAMPLES • EXAMINE SYSTEM
• CHECK TIE ROD • CHECK CLEARANCES
• EXAMINE PAINT

BREAK DOWNS
BREAK DOWNS POSSIBLE CAUSES REMEDY
OIL LEAKAGE WEAR/ DAMAGE OF REPLACE SEALING
THROUGH JOINTS/ SEALING
FLANGES
OIL LEAKAGE WEAR/ DAMAGE OF REPLACE SHAFT
ALONG PUMP SHAFT SEAL SEAL
SHAFT
NOISY PUMP AIR IN SYSTEM RELEASE AIR
OPERATION THROUGH HIGHEST
POINT
PUMP DOES NOT 1. WEAR/ DAMAGE 1. REPLACE
DEVELOP OF SEALING SEALING
SPECIFIED 2. FILTER 2. CLEAN/ REPLACE
PRESSURE CLOGGED FILTER
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)
SLUGGISH 1. INDICATOR 1. SET INDICATOR
RESPONSE BY DEFECTIVE
RUDDER 2. LESS OIL IN 2. TOP UP OIL
SYSTEM
3. FILTERS CHOKED 3. CLEAN/ REPLACE
FILTERS
4. PUMP
DEFECTIVE 4. CHECK PUMP
RPM/ RELIEF
5. CONTROL SLIDE/ VALVE
MANOEUVRING 5. CHECK
VALVE SLUGGISH CONTROL SLIDE/
MANOEUVRING
VALVE
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)
SLUGGISH 6. TELEMOTOR 6. RENEW SEALS
RESPONSE BY PLUNGER SEALS
RUDDER (CONTD) LEAKING
7. BY-PASS VALVE 7. SHUT BY-PASS
PARTIALLY OPEN VALVE
8. CONTROL 8. CHECK
LINKAGES HARD FREENESS OF
IN OPERATION LINKAGES
9. RUDDER FOULED 9. CHECK RUDDER
BY EXTERNAL FROM OUTSIDE
OBJECTS AND FREE

BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)
RUDDER OPERATES 1. INDICATOR 1. SET INDICATOR
ONLY IN ONE DEFECTIVE
DIRECTION 2. ELECTRICAL 2. CHECK
CONTROL ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM CONTROL
DEFECTIVE SYSTEM
3. MANOEUVRING 3. CHECK
VALVE MANOEUVRING
DEFECTIVE VALVE
4. DEFECTIVE PIPE 4. CHECK PIPE
CONNECTIONS CONNECTIONS

BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)
RUDDER NOT 1. INDICATOR 1. SET INDICATOR
OPERATING IN ANY DEFECTIVE
DIRECTION 2. LESS OIL IN 2. TOP UP OIL
SYSTEM
3. ELECTRICAL 3. CHECK
CONTROL ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM CONTROL
DEFECTIVE SYSTEM
4. PUMP COUPLING 4. RENEW/
BROKEN/ CONNECT
DISCONNECTED COUPLING
5. PUMP 5. CHECK PUMP
DEVELOPING RPM/ RELIEF
LESS PRESSURE VALVE
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)
RUDDER NOT 6. PUMP MOTOR 6. REWIND COIL/
OPERATING IN ANY COIL BURNT REPLACE
DIRECTION (CONTD) MOTOR
7. TELEMOTOR 7. RE-CONNECT
SYSTEM TELEMOTOR
DISCONNECTED SYSTEM

KORT NOZZLE
• CYLINDRICAL SHROUD
AROUND PROPELLER
• RUDDER SUPPORTED BY A
LOWER PINTLE BEARING
• PROPELLER THRUST
DIRECTED AS JET OF WATER
BY NOZZLE
• IMPROVED MANOEUVRING
AND TOWING

VOITH-SCHNEIDER
• BLADES PROJECT BELOW
SHIP’S HULL
• ROTATE ABOUT VERTICAL
AXIS
• HAVE OSCILLATORY
MOTION ABOUT OWN AXIS
• ANGLE OF OSCILLATION
DETERMINES THRUST

416
Contents:
Introduction
Block Diagram and Pin Description of the 8051
Registers
Memory mapping in 8051
Stack in the 8051
I/O Port Programming
Timer
Interrupt
Why do we need to learn
Microprocessors/controllers?
• The microprocessor is the core of computer
systems.
• Nowadays many communication, digital
entertainment, portable devices, are
controlled by them.
• A designer should know what types of
components he needs, ways to reduce
production costs and product reliable.

Different aspects of a
microprocessor/controller
• Hardware :Interface to the real world
• Software :order how to deal with inputs

The necessary tools for a
microprocessor/controller
• CPU: Central Processing Unit
• I/O: Input /Output
• Bus: Address bus & Data bus
• Memory: RAM & ROM
• Timer
• Interrupt
• Serial Port
• Parallel Port

Microprocessors:
General-purpose microprocessor
• CPU for Computers
• No RAM, ROM, I/O on CPU chip itself
• Example：Intel’s x86, Motorola’s 680x0
Many chips on mother’s board

Data Bus
CPU
General-
Serial
Purpose RAM ROM I/O Timer COM
Micro- Port
Port
processor
Address Bus
General-Purpose Microprocessor System

Microcontroller :
• A smaller computer
• On-chip RAM, ROM, I/O ports...
• Example：Motorola’s 6811, Intel’s 8051, Zilog’s Z8 and PIC 16X
CPU RAM ROM

A single chip
Serial
I/O Timer COM
Port
Port
Microcontroller

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
Microprocessor Microcontroller
• CPU is stand-alone, RAM, • CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O and
ROM, I/O, timer are separate timer are all on a single chip
• designer can decide on the • fix amount of on-chip ROM,
amount of ROM, RAM and RAM, I/O ports
I/O ports. • for applications in which cost,
• expansive power and space are critical
• versatility • single-purpose
• general-purpose

Embedded System
• Embedded system means the processor is embedded into that

application.
• An embedded product uses a microprocessor or microcontroller to
do one task only.
• In an embedded system, there is only one application software that
is typically burned into ROM.
• Example：printer, keyboard, video game player

Three criteria in Choosing a Microcontroller
1. meeting the computing needs of the task efficiently and cost

effectively
• speed, the amount of ROM and RAM, the number of I/O ports
and timers, size, packaging, power consumption
• easy to upgrade
• cost per unit
2. availability of software development tools
• assemblers, debuggers, C compilers, emulator, simulator,
technical support
3. wide availability and reliable sources of the microcontrollers.

Block Diagram
External interrupts
On-chip Timer/Counter
Interrupt ROM for

On-chip Timer 1 Counter
Control program
code RAM Timer 0 Inputs
CPU
Bus Serial
4 I/O Ports
OSC Control Port
P0 P1 P2 P3 TxD RxD
Address/Data

Pin Description of the 8051
P1.0 1 40 Vcc
P1.1 2 39 P0.0(AD0)
P1.2 3 38 P0.1(AD1)
P1.3
P1.4
4
5
8051 37
36
P0.2(AD2)
P0.3(AD3)
P1.5 6 (8031) 35 P0.4(AD4)
P1.6 7 34 P0.5(AD5)
P1.7 8 33 P0.6(AD6)
RST 9 32 P0.7(AD7)
(RXD)P3.0 10 31 EA/VPP
(TXD)P3.1 11 30 ALE/PROG
(INT0)P3.2 12 29 PSEN
(INT1)P3.3 13 28 P2.7(A15)
(T0)P3.4 14 27 P2.6(A14)
(T1)P3.5 15 26 P2.5(A13)
(WR)P3.6 16 25 P2.4(A12)
(RD)P3.7 17 24 P2.3(A11)
XTAL2 18 23 P2.2(A10)
XTAL1 19 22 P2.1(A9)
GND 20 21 P2.0(A8) 

Pins of 8051（1/4）
• Vcc（pin 40）：
– Vcc provides supply voltage to the chip.
– The voltage source is +5V.
• GND（pin 20）：ground
• XTAL1 and XTAL2（pins 19,18）

Figure (a). XTAL Connection to 8051
 Using a quartz crystal oscillator

 We can observe the frequency on the XTAL2 pin.
C2
XTAL2
30pF
C1
XTAL1
30pF
GND

Pins of 8051（2/4）
• RST（pin 9）：reset
– It is an input pin and is active high（normally low）.
• The high pulse must be high at least 2 machine cycles.
– It is a power-on reset.
• Upon applying a high pulse to RST, the
microcontroller will reset and all values in registers
will be lost.
• Reset values of some 8051 registers 

Figure (b). Power-On RESET Circuit
Vcc
10 uF 31
EA/VPP
30 pF X1
19
11.0592 MHz
8.2 K
X2
18
30 pF
9 RST

Pins of 8051（3/4）
• /EA（pin 31）：external access

– There is no on-chip ROM in 8031 and 8032 .
– The /EA pin is connected to GND to indicate the code is
stored externally.
– /PSEN ＆ ALE are used for external ROM.
– For 8051, /EA pin is connected to Vcc.
– “/” means active low.
• /PSEN（pin 29）：program store enable
– This is an output pin and is connected to the OE pin of the
ROM.

Pins of 8051（4/4）
• ALE（pin 30）：address latch enable

– It is an output pin and is active high.
– 8051 port 0 provides both address and data.
– The ALE pin is used for de-multiplexing the address
and data by connecting to the G pin of the 74LS373
latch.
• I/O port pins
– The four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3.
– Each port uses 8 pins.
– All I/O pins are bi-directional.
Pins of I/O Port
• The 8051 has four I/O ports

– Port 0 （pins 32-39）：P0（P0.0～P0.7）
– Port 1（pins 1-8）：P1（P1.0～P1.7）
– Port 2（pins 21-28）：P2（P2.0～P2.7）
– Port 3（pins 10-17）：P3（P3.0～P3.7）
– Each port has 8 pins.
• Named P0.X （X=0,1,...,7）, P1.X, P2.X, P3.X
• Ex：P0.0 is the bit 0（LSB）of P0
• Ex：P0.7 is the bit 7（MSB）of P0
• These 8 bits form a byte.
• Each port can be used as input or output (bi-direction).


Hardware Structure of I/O Pin
• Each pin of I/O ports
– Internal CPU bus：communicate with CPU
– A D latch store the value of this pin
• D latch is controlled by “Write to latch”
– Write to latch＝1：write data into the D latch
– 2 Tri-state buffer：
• TB1: controlled by “Read pin”
– Read pin＝1：really read the data present at the pin
• TB2: controlled by “Read latch”
– Read latch＝1：read value from internal latch
– A transistor M1 gate
• Gate=0: open
• Gate=1: close
D Latch:

A Pin of Port 1
Read latch Vcc

TB2
Load(L1)
Internal CPU D Q P1.X

bus P1.X pin
Write to latch Clk Q M1
TB1
Read pin P0.x
8051 IC
Writing “1” to Output Pin P1.X
Read latch Vcc

TB2
Load(L1) 2. output pin is
1. write a 1 to the pin Vcc
1 P1.X
Internal CPU D Q
bus P1.X pin
0 output 1
TB1
Read pin
8051 IC
Writing “0” to Output Pin P1.X
Read latch Vcc

TB2
Load(L1) 2. output pin is
1. write a 0 to the pin ground
0 P1.X
Internal CPU D Q
bus P1.X pin
1 output 0
TB1
Read pin
8051 IC
Reading “High” at Input Pin
Read latch Vcc 2. MOV A,P1

TB2 external pin=High
1. write a 1 to the pin MOV Load(L1)
P1,#0FFH
1 1 P1.X pin
Internal CPU bus D Q
P1.X
0 M1
Write to latch Clk Q
TB1
Read pin
3. Read pin=1 Read latch=0
Write to latch=1
8051 IC
Reading “Low” at Input Pin
Read latch Vcc 2. MOV A,P1

TB2
1. write a 1 to the pin Load(L1) external pin=Low
MOV P1,#0FFH
1 0 P1.X pin
Internal CPU bus D Q
P1.X
0 M1
Write to latch Clk Q
TB1
Read pin
3. Read pin=1 Read latch=0
Write to latch=1
8051 IC

Other Pins
• P1, P2, and P3 have internal pull-up resisters.
– P1, P2, and P3 are not open drain.
• P0 has no internal pull-up resistors and does not
connects to Vcc inside the 8051.
– P0 is open drain.
– Compare the figures of P1.X and P0.X. 
• However, for a programmer, it is the same to program
P0, P1, P2 and P3.
• All the ports upon RESET are configured as output.

A Pin of Port 0
Read latch
TB2
Internal CPU D Q P0.X

bus P1.X pin
TB1
Read pin P1.x
8051 IC
Port 0 with Pull-Up Resistors
Vcc
10 K
P0.0
Port
DS5000 P0.1
P0.2
8751 P0.3
8951 P0.4 0
P0.5
P0.6
P0.7

Port 3 Alternate Functions
P3 Bit Function Pin
P3.0 RxD 10
P3.1 TxD 11
P3.2 INT0 12
P3.3 INT1 13
P3.4 T0 14
P3.5 T1 15
P3.6 WR 16
P3.7 RD 17 

RESET Value of Some 8051 Registers:
Register Reset Value

PC 0000
ACC 0000
B 0000
PSW 0000
SP 0007
DPTR 0000
RAM are all zero.

Registers
A
R0
DPTR DPH DPL
R1
R2 PC PC
R3
R4 Some 8051 16-bit Register
R5
R6
R7
Some 8-bitt Registers of

the 8051

Memory mapping in 8051
• ROM memory map in 8051 family
4k 8k 32k
0000H 0000H 0000H
0FFFH
DS5000-32
1FFFH
8751
AT89C51
8752
AT89C52 7FFFH
from Atmel Corporation

from Dallas Semiconductor

• RAM memory space allocation in the 8051
7FH
Scratch pad RAM
30H
2FH
Bit-Addressable RAM
20H
1FH Register Bank 3
18H
17H
Register Bank 2
10H
0FH (Stack) Register Bank 1
08H
07H
Register Bank 0
00H

Stack in the 8051
• The register used to access 7FH
the stack is called SP (stack
Scratch pad RAM
pointer) register.
30H
• The stack pointer in the 8051 2FH

Bit-Addressable RAM
is only 8 bits wide, which
20H
means that it can take value 1FH Register Bank 3
00 to FFH. When 8051 18H
17H
powered up, the SP register 10H
Register Bank 2
contains value 07. 0FH (Stack) Register Bank 1

08H
07H
Register Bank 0
00H

Timer :

TMOD Register:
• Gate : When set, timer only runs while INT(0,1) is high.

• C/T : Counter/Timer select bit.
• M1 : Mode bit 1.
• M0 : Mode bit 0.

TCON Register:
• TF1: Timer 1 overflow flag.

• TR1: Timer 1 run control bit.
• TF0: Timer 0 overflag.
• TR0: Timer 0 run control bit.
• IE1: External interrupt 1 edge flag.
• IT1: External interrupt 1 type flag.
• IE0: External interrupt 0 edge flag.
• IT0: External interrupt 0 type flag.

Interrupt :

Interrupt Enable Register :
• EA : Global enable/disable.
• --- : Undefined.
• ET2 :Enable Timer 2 interrupt.
• ES :Enable Serial port interrupt.
• ET1 :Enable Timer 1 interrupt.
• EX1 :Enable External 1 interrupt.
• ET0 : Enable Timer 0 interrupt.
• EX0 : Enable External 0 interrupt.

INTRODUCTION TO PLCS
Advantages of PLCs
• Less wiring.
• Wiring between devices and relay contacts are done in the PLC
program.
• Easier and faster to make changes.
• Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce
downtime.
• Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before
failure.

PLC Origin
•- Developed to replace relays in the late 1960s
•- Costs dropped and became popular by 1980s
•- Now used in many industrial designs

Historical Background
The Hydramatic Division of the General Motors Corporation specified
the design criteria for the first programmable controller in 1968
Their primary goal
To eliminate the high costs associated with inflexible, relay-controlled

systems.
460
460
Historical Background
• The controller had to be designed in modular form, so that sub-assemblies
could be removed easily for replacement or repair.
• The control system needed the capability to pass data collection to a

central system.
• The system had to be reusable.
• The method used to program the controller had to be simple, so that it

could be easily understood by plant personnel.
461
461
Programmable Controller Development
1968 Programmable concept developed
1969 Hardware CPU controller, with logic
instructions, 1 K of memory and 128 I/O
points
1974 Use of several (multi) processors within a
PLC - timers and counters; arithmetic
operations; 12 K of memory
and 1024 I/O points
1976 Remote input/output systems introduced
1977 Microprocessors - based PLC introduced
462
462
Programmable Controller Development
1980 Intelligent I/O modules developed
Enhanced communications facilities
Enhanced software features
(e.g. documentation)
Use of personal microcomputers as
programming aids
1983 Low - cost small PLC’s introduced
1985 on Networking of all levels of PLC, computer
and machine using SCADA software.
463
463
Programmable Logic Controllers
( Definition according to NEMA standard ICS3-1978)
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming

memory for the internal storage of instructions for implementing specific
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to
control through digital or analog modules, various types of machines or
process.
464
464
Leading Brands Of PLC
AMERICAN 1. Allen Bradley
2. Gould Modicon
3. Texas Instruments
4. General Electric
5. Westinghouse
6. Cutter Hammer
7. Square D
EUROPEAN 1. Siemens
2. Klockner & Mouller
3. Festo
4. Telemechanique
465
465
Leading Brands Of PLC
JAPANESE 1. Toshiba
2. Omron
3. Fanuc
4. Mitsubishi
466
466
PLC Size
1. SMALL - it covers units with up to 128 I/O’s and
memories up to 2 Kbytes.
- these PLC’s are capable of providing
simple to advance levels or machine
controls.
2. MEDIUM - have up to 2048 I/O’s and memories up
to 32 Kbytes.
3. LARGE - the most sophisticated units of the PLC
family. They have up to 8192 I/O’s and
memories up to 750 Kbytes.
- can control individual production
processes or entire plant.
467
467
Major Components of a Common PLC
POWER
SUPPLY
I M O M
N O U O
P D T D
U U PROCESSOR P U
T L U L
From E T E To
SENSORS OUTPUT
Pushbuttons, Solenoids,
contacts, contactors,
limit switches, alarms
etc. etc.
PROGRAMMING
DEVICE
468
468
POWER SUPPLY
Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components
I/O MODULES
Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logic-

level signals inside the PLC and the field’s high level signal.
469
469
PROCESSOR
Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities of the entire

PLC systems.
PROGRAMMING DEVICE
used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence of
operation and control of process equipment or driven machine.
470
470
Programming Device
Also known as:
 Industrial Terminal ( Allen Bradley )
 Program Development Terminal ( General Electric )
 Programming Panel ( Gould Modicon )
 Programmer ( Square D )
 Program Loader ( Idec-Izumi )
 Programming Console ( Keyence / Omron )
471
471
Programming Device
Types:
 Hand held unit with LED / LCD display
 Desktop type with a CRT display
 Compatible computer terminal
472
472
I/O Module
• The I/O interface section of a PLC connects it to external
field devices.
• The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals
received from or sent to the external input and output devices.
• Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog input devices to

logic levels acceptable to PLC’s processor.
• Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of

driving the connected discrete or analog output devices.
473
473
I/O Module
DC INPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
USE TO  Prevent voltage
DROP THE transients from
VOLTAGE damaging the
TO LOGIC processor.
LEVEL Helps reduce the
effects of
electrical noise
Current Buffer,
FROM Limiting OPTO-
Filter,
TO
INPUT Resistor ISOLATOR hysteresis
PROCESSOR
DEVICE Circuits
474
474
I/O Module
AC INPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
CONVERTS THE AC  Prevent voltage
INPUT TO DC AND transients from
DROPS THE damaging the
VOLTAGE TO LOGIC processor.
LEVEL Helps reduce the
effects of
electrical noise
Rectifier, Buffer,
FROM Resistor OPTO-
Filter,
TO
INPUT Network ISOLATOR Hysteresis
PROCESSOR
DEVICE Circuits
475
475
476
477
478
I/O Module
DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
 Prevent voltage
transients from
damaging the
processor.
Helps reduce the
effects of
electrical noise
Amplifier
FROM OPTO-
RELAY
TTL TO
PROCESSOR ISOLATOR TRIAC
Circuits OUTPUT
X’SISTOR
DEVICE
479
479
480
I/O Circuits
DIFFERENT TYPES OF I/O CIRCUITS
1. Pilot Duty Outputs

Outputs of this type typically are used to drive high-current electromagnetic
loads such as solenoids, relays, valves, and motor starters.
These loads are highly inductive and exhibit a large inrush current.
Pilot duty outputs should be capable of withstanding an inrush current of

10 times the rated load for a short period of time without failure.
481
481
I/O Circuits
2. General - Purpose Outputs
These are usually low- voltage and low-current and are used to drive
indicating lights and other non-inductive loads. Noise suppression may or
may not be included on this types of modules.
3. Discrete Inputs
Circuits of this type are used to sense the status of limit switches, push
buttons, and other discrete sensors. Noise suppression is of great
importance in preventing false indication of inputs turning on or off
because of noise.
482
482
I/O Circuits
4. Analog I/O
Circuits of this type sense or drive analog signals.

Analog inputs come from devices, such as thermocouples, strain gages, or
pressure sensors, that provide a signal voltage or current that is derived
from the process variable.
Standard Analog Input signals: 4-20mA; 0-10V
Analog outputs can be used to drive devices such as voltmeters, X-Y

recorders, servomotor drives, and valves through the use of transducers.
Standard Analog Output signals: 4-20mA; 0-5V; 0-10V
483
483
I/O Circuits
5. Special - Purpose I/O
Circuits of this type are used to interface PLCs to very specific types of
circuits such as servomotors, stepping motors PID (proportional plus integral
plus derivative) loops, high-speed pulse counting, resolver and decoder
inputs, multiplexed displays, and keyboards.
This module allows for limited access to timer and counter presets and other
PLC variables without requiring a program loader.
484
484
OUTPUTS
INPUTS MOTOR
CONTACTOR
LAMP
PUSHBUTTONS
PLC
485
Allen-Bradley 1746-1A16
L2 I= Input
L1
Module
I:2 slot # in rack
0
P. B SWITCH Module
Terminal #
Address I:2.0/0
LADDER PROGRAM
INPUT MODULE
WIRING DIAGRAM
486
CONTACTOR
L2 L1 N.
O
MOTOR
L2
C •SOLENOID
L1
•VALVES
FIELD WIRING •LAMP
•BUZZER
OUTPUT MODULE
WIRING
L1 O:4
L2
CONTACTOR 0
LADDER PROGRAM
487
Discrete Input
A discrete input also referred as digital input is an input that is either ON or

OFF are connected to the PLC digital input. In the ON condition it is referred to
as logic 1 or a logic high and in the OFF condition maybe referred to as logic o
or logic low.
Normally Open
Pushbutton
Normally Closed
Pushbutton
Normally Open switch
Normally Closed switch
Normally Open contact
Normally closed contact

488
IN
OFF PLC
Logic 0
Input
Module
24 V dc
IN
OFF PLC
Logic 1
Input
Module
24 V dc
489
Analog Input
An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous

signal. Typical inputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA
or 0 to10V. Below, a level transmitter monitors the level of
liquid in the tank. Depending on the level Tx, the signal to the
PLC can either increase or decrease as the level increases
or decreases.
Level Transmitter IN
PLC
Analog
Tank Input
Module
490
Digital Output
A discrete output is either in an ON or OFF condition. Solenoids,

contactors coils, lamps are example of devices connected to the
Discrete or digital outputs. Below, the lamp can be turned ON or OFF by the PLC
output it is connected to.
OUT
PLC
Lamp
Digital
Output
Module
491
Analog Output
An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous

signal. Typical outputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA
or 0 to10V.
Electric to pneumatic transducer
OUT
E Supply air
PLC 0 to 10V P
Analog
Output
Module
Pneumatic control valve
492
Processor
The processor module contains the PLC’s microprocessor, its supporting
circuitry, and its memory system.
The main function of the microprocessor is to analyze data coming from

field sensors through input modules, make decisions based on the user’s
defined control program and return signal back through output modules to
the field devices. Field sensors: switches, flow, level, pressure, temp.
transmitters, etc. Field output devices: motors, valves, solenoids, lamps, or
audible devices.
The memory system in the processor module has two parts: a system
memory and an application memory.
493
493
Memory Map Organization
•System memory includes an area called the EXECUTIVE,
composed of permanently-stored programs that direct all
system activities, such as execution of the users control
program, communication with peripheral devices, and other
SYSTEM system activities.
•The system memory also contains the routines that
implement the PLC’s instruction set, which is composed of
specific control functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting, and arithmetic.
•System memory is generally built from read-only memory
devices.
APPLICATION
•The application memory is divided into the data table area
•Data Table and user program area.
•The data table stores any data associated with the user’s
•User Program control program, such as system input and output status data,
and any stored constants, variables, or preset values. The
data table is where data is monitored, manipulated, and
changed for control purposes.
•The user program area is where the programmed
instructions entered by the user are stored as an application
control program.
494
494
Memory Designs
VOLATILE.
A volatile memory is one that loses its stored information when power is
removed.
Even momentary losses of power will erase any information stored or

programmed on a volatile memory chip.
Common Type of Volatile Memory
RAM. Random Access Memory(Read/Write)

Read/write indicates that the information stored in the memory can be
retrieved or read, while write indicates that the user can program or write
information into the memory.
495
495
Memory Designs
The words random access refer to the ability of any location (address) in
the memory to be accessed or used. Ram memory is used for both the
user memory (ladder diagrams) and storage memory in many PLC’s.
RAM memory must have battery backup to retain or protect the stored
program.
496
496
Memory Designs
Several Types of RAM Memory:
1.MOS
2.HMOS
3.CMOS
The CMOS-RAM (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) is probably

one of the most popular. CMOS-RAM is popular because it has a very low
current drain when not being accessed (15microamps.), and the information
stored in memory can be retained by as little as 2Vdc.
497
497
Memory Designs
NON-VOLATILE
Has the ability to retain stored information when power is removed,
accidentally or intentionally. These memories do not require battery back-up.
Common Type of Non-Volatile Memory
ROM, Read Only Memory

Read only indicates that the information stored in memory can be read only
and cannot be changed. Information in ROM is placed there by the
manufacturer for the internal use and operation of the PLC.
498
498
Memory Designs
Other Types of Non-Volatile Memory
PROM, Programmable Read Only Memory

Allows initial and/or additional information to be written into the chip.
PROM may be written into only once after being received from the PLC
manufacturer; programming is accomplish by pulses of current.
The current melts the fusible links in the device, preventing it from being
reprogrammed. This type of memory is used to prevent unauthorized
program changes.
499
499
Memory Designs
EPROM, Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Ideally suited when program storage is to be semi-permanent or additional

security is needed to prevent unauthorized program changes.
The EPROM chip has a quartz window over a silicon material that contains
the electronic integrated circuits. This window normally is covered by an
opaque material, but when the opaque material is removed and the
circuitry exposed to ultra violet light, the memory content can be erased.
The EPROM chip is also referred to as UVPROM.
500
500
Memory Designs
EEPROM, Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory
Also referred to as E2PROM, is a chip that can be programmed using a

standard programming device and can be erased by the proper signal being
applied to the erase pin.
EEPROM is used primarily as a non-volatile backup for the normal RAM

memory. If the program in RAM is lost or erased, a copy of the program
stored on an EEPROM chip can be down loaded into the RAM.
501
501
PLC Operation
Basic Function of a Typical PLC
Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute the user
program stored in application memory, then, based on whatever control
scheme has been programmed by the user, turn the field output devices on
or off, or perform whatever control is necessary for the process application.
This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in

memory, and updating the outputs is known as scanning.
502
502
While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the following four
phases, which are repeated continuously as individual cycles of operation:
PHASE 1
Read Inputs
Scan
PHASE 2
Program
Execution
PHASE 3
Diagnostics/
Comm
PHASE 4
Output
Scan
503
503
PHASE 1 – Input Status scan
 A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status of its inputs.
PHASE 2– Logic Solve/Program Execution
 The application program is executed using the status of the inputs
PHASE 3– Logic Solve/Program Execution
 Once the program is executed, the CPU performs diagnostics and

communication tasks
504
504
PHASE 4 - Output Status Scan
•An output status scan is then performed, whereby the stored output
values are sent to actuators and other field output devices. The cycle
ends by updating the outputs.
505
505
As soon as Phase 4 are completed, the entire cycle begins again with
Phase 1 input scan.
The time it takes to implement a scan cycle is called SCAN TIME. The scan
time composed of the program scan time, which is the time required for
solving the control program, and the I/O update time, or time required to
read inputs and update outputs. The program scan time generally depends
on the amount of memory taken by the control program and type of
instructions used in the program. The time to make a single scan can vary
from 1 ms to 100 ms.
506
506
PLC Communications
Common Uses of PLC Communications Ports
Changing resident PLC programs - uploading/downloading from a

supervisory controller (Laptop or desktop computer).
 Forcing I/O points and memory elements from a remote terminal.
Linking a PLC into a control hierarchy containing several sizes of PLC

and computer.
Monitoring data and alarms, etc. via printers or Operator Interface Units
(OIUs).
507
507
PLC Communications
Serial Communications
PLC communications facilities normally provides serial transmission of

information.
Common Standards
RS 232
 Used in short-distance computer communications, with the majority of

computer hardware and peripherals.
 Has a maximum effective distance of approx. 30 m at 9600 baud.
508
508
PLC Communications
Local Area Network (LAN)
Local Area Network provides a physical link between all devices plus
providing overall data exchange management or protocol, ensuring that each
device can “talk” to other machines and understand data received from them.
LANs provide the common, high-speed data communications bus which

interconnects any or all devices within the local area.
LANs are commonly used in business applications to allow several users to

share costly software packages and peripheral equipment such as printers
and hard disk storage.
509
509
PLC Communications
RS 422 / RS 485
 Used for longer-distance links, often between several PCs in a

distributed system. RS 485 can have a maximum distance of about 1000
meters.
510
510
PLC Communications
Programmable Controllers and Networks
Dedicated Network System of Different Manufacturers
Manufacturer Network
Allen-Bradley Data Highway
Gould Modicon Modbus
General Electric GE Net Factory LAN
Mitsubishi Melsec-NET
Square D SY/NET
Texas Instruments TIWAY
511
511
Specifications
Several factors are used for evaluating the quality and performance of
programmable controllers when selecting a unit for a particular application.
These are listed below.
NUMBER OF I /O PORTS
This specifies the number of I/O devices that can be connected to the
controller. There should be sufficient I/O ports to meet present requirements
with enough spares to provide for moderate future expansion.
512
512
Selecting a PLC
Criteria
• Number of logical inputs and outputs.

• Memory
• Number of special I/O modules
• Scan Time
• Communications
• Software

A Detailed Design Process
1. Understand the process

2. Hardware/software selection
3. Develop ladder logic
4. Determine scan times and memory requirements

Specifications
OUTPUT-PORT POWER RATINGS
Each output port should be capable of supplying sufficient voltage and

current to drive the output peripheral connected to it.
SCAN TIME
This is the speed at which the controller executes the relay-ladder logic
program. This variable is usually specified as the scan time per 1000 logic
nodes and typically ranges from 1 to 200 milliseconds.
515
515
Specifications
MEMORY CAPACITY
The amount of memory required for a particular application is related to the

length of the program and the complexity of the control system. Simple
applications having just a few relays do not require significant amount of
memory. Program length tend to expand after the system have been used
for a while. It is advantageous to a acquire a controller that has more
memory than is presently needed.
516
516
PLC Status Indicators
•Power On
•Run Mode
•Programming Mode
•Fault

Troubleshooting
1. Look at the process

2. PLC status lights
HALT - something has stopped the CPU
RUN - the PLC thinks it is OK (and probably is)
ERROR - a physical problem has occurred with the PLC
3. Indicator lights on I/O cards and sensors
4. Consult the manuals, or use software if available.
5. Use programming terminal / laptop.

List of items required when working with PLCs:
1. Programming Terminal - laptop or desktop PC.

2. PLC Software. PLC manufacturers have
their own specific software and license key.
3. Communication cable for connection from Laptop
to PLC.
4. Backup copy of the ladder program (on diskette, CDROM,
hard disk, flash memory). If none, upload it from the PLC.
5. Documentation- (PLC manual, Software manual, drawings,
ladder program printout, and Seq. of Operations manual.)

Examples of PLC Programming Software:
1. Allen-Bradley – Rockwell Software RSLogix500

2. Modicon - Modsoft
3. Omron - Syswin
4. GE-Fanuc Series 6 – LogicMaster6
5. Square D- PowerLogic
6. Texas Instruments – Simatic
6. Telemecanique – Modicon TSX Micro

PROGRAMMING
Normally Open Normally Closed

(NO) (NC)
Power flows through these contacts when they are closed. The
normally open (NO) is true when the input or output status bit
controlling the contact is 1. The normally closed (NC) is true
when the input or output status bit controlling the contact is 0.
521
Coils
Coils represent relays that are energized when power flows to

them. When a coil is energized it causes a corresponding
output to turn on by changing the state of the status bit controlling
the output to 1. That same output status bit maybe used to control
normally open or normally closed contact anywhere in the program.
522
Boxes
Boxes represent various instructions or functions that are

Executed when power flows to the box. Some of these
Functions are timers, counters and math operations.
523
AND OPERATION
A B C
Rung
Each rung or network on a ladder program represents

a logic operation. In the rung above, both inputs A and B
must be true (1) in order for the output C to be true (1).
524
OR OPERATION
A C
Rung
In the rung above, it can be seen that either input A or B

is be true (1), or both are true, then the output C is true (1).
525
NOT OPERATION
A C
Rung
In the rung above, it can be seen that if input A is be true (1),

then the output C is true (0) or when A is (0), output C is 1.
526
SCADA
• SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) generally refers
to industrial control systems: computer systems that monitor and
control industrial, infrastructure, or facility-based processes.
• A SCADA System usually consists of the following subsystems:
– A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents
process data to a human operator, and through this, the human
operator monitors and controls the process.
– A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the
process and sending commands (control) to the process.
– Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process,
converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the
supervisory system.
– Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field devices because
they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than
special-purpose RTUs.
– Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to
the Remote Terminal Units.

Supervision vs. control
• SCADA systems and distributed control systems (DCS):
Generally speaking, a SCADA system always refers to a
system that coordinates, but does not control processes in
real time.
• The real-time control is dependent on telecommunications
technology, enabling reliable, low latency, high speed
communications over wide areas.
– DCS is process oriented, while SCADA is data acquisition oriented.
– DCS is process state driven, while SCADA is event driven.
– DCS is commonly used to handle operations on a single locale,
while SCADA is preferred for applications that are spread over a
wide geographic location.
– DCS operator stations are always connected to its I/O, while
SCADA is expected to operate despite failure of field
communications.

SCADA architecture

Definitions
• The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems
which monitor and control entire sites, or complexes of
systems spread out over large areas.
• Most control actions are performed automatically by
Remote Terminal Units ("RTUs") or by programmable
logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host control functions are
usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory
level intervention.
• The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or
PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the overall
performance of the loop.

Data management in SCADA.
• Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level
and includes meter readings and equipment
status reports that are communicated to SCADA
as required.
• Data is then compiled and formatted in such a
way that a control room operator using the HMI
can make supervisory decisions to adjust or
override normal RTU (PLC) controls.
• Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built on
a commodity Database Management System, to
allow trending and other analytical auditing.

• SCADA systems typically implement a distributed
database, commonly referred to as a tag
database, which contains data elements called
tags or points.
• A point represents a single input or output value
monitored or controlled by the system. Points can
be either "hard" or "soft".
• A hard point represents an actual input or output
within the system, while a soft point results from
logic and math operations applied to other
points.

• Points are normally stored as value-timestamp
pairs: a value, and the timestamp when it was
recorded or calculated.
• A series of value-timestamp pairs gives the
history of that point. It's also common to store
additional metadata with tags, such as the
path to a field device or PLC register, design
time comments, and alarm information

Human Machine Interface

• A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the
apparatus which presents process data to a
human operator, and through which the human
operator controls the process.
• An HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's
databases and software programs, to provide
trending, diagnostic data, and management
information such as scheduled maintenance
procedures, logistic information, detailed
schematics for a particular sensor or machine,
and expert-system troubleshooting guides

• The HMI system usually presents the information
to the operating personnel graphically, in the
form of a mimic diagram.
• This means that the operator can see a
schematic representation of the plant being
controlled.
• Mimic diagrams may consist of line graphics and
schematic symbols to represent process
elements, or may consist of digital photographs
of the process equipment overlain with animated
symbols.

• An important part of most SCADA implementations is
alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain
alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an
alarm event has occurred.
• Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more
actions are taken such as the activation of one or more
alarm indicators.
• In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to
acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate
some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators
remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.

SCADA alarm handling
• An alarm point is a digital status point that has either the
value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula
based on the values in other analogue and digital points -
or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically
monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies
outside high and low limit values associated with that
point.
• Alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a
screen, or a colored or flashing area on a screen.
• In designing SCADA systems, care is needed in coping
with a cascade of alarm events occurring in a short time,
otherwise the underlying cause (which might not be the
earliest event detected) may get lost in the noise.
Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
• The RTU connects to physical equipment.
Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals
from the equipment to digital values such as the
open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or
measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or
current.
• By converting and sending these electrical signals
out to equipment the RTU can control
equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or
a valve, or setting the speed of a pump. It can
also control the flow of a liquid.

Supervisory Station
• The term "Supervisory Station" refers to the
servers and software responsible for
communicating with the field equipment
(RTUs, PLCs, etc.), and then to the HMI
software running on workstations in the
control room, or elsewhere.
• In smaller SCADA systems, the master station
may be composed of a single PC.

Supervisory Station
• In larger SCADA systems, the master station
may include multiple servers, distributed
software applications, and disaster recovery
sites. To increase the integrity of the system
the multiple servers will often be configured in
a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation
providing continuous control and monitoring
in the event of a server failure.

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Maritime automation

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 1

 Human Performance in Automated Systems

 Designing for Effective Human-Automation

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 2

“A machine or system that accomplishes

Source: PARASURAMAN, R., & RILEY, V. (1997). Humans and

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 3

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 4

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 5

• Accident: Grounding of passenger ship on

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 7

• NTSB Probable Cause: Over-reliance on

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 8

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 9

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 10

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 11

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 13

Automation can fundamentally change the nature

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 14

 Improved precision of performance

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 15

 Unbalanced mental workload

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 16

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 17

Sources: WIENER, C. E. (1988). Cockpit automation. In E. L. Wiener & D. C. Nagel (Eds.)

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 18

Source: Endsley, M., & Kiris, E. (1995). The out-of-the-loop performance

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 19

LEVEL OF AUTOMATION BEFORE AUTOMATION FAILURE

The goal is to achieve calibrated trust

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 21

Task: Carry out primary flight and fuel management

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 22

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 23

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 24

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 25

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 26

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 27

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 28

Design Development Fielded System Operations

Human Factors “Fixes”

HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Design Development Fielded System Operations

Human Factors Science and Engineering

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 29

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 30

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 31

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 32

• Balancing against a known force

• Balancing the force produced on a known area

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 33

• SIMPLE ‘U’ TUBE

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 34

• RING BALANCE TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE

• BELL TYPE PRESURE GAUGE

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 35

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 36

Diff. Pressure = (P2 – P1) Hg

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 40

• ‘C’ TYPE BOURDON TUBE

• SPIRAL TYPE BOURDON TUBE

• HELICAL TYPE BOURDON TUBE

Operational level performance enhancement course – Maritime Automation 43