BIOLOGY

CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS

Fourth Edition

Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor

CHAPTER 10
Protein Synthesis

From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION
FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN
The DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which
provide the molecular basis for phenotypic
traits

• The information constituting an organism’s

genotype is carried in the sequence of bases in
DNA
• The flow of information is from DNA to RNA
to protein

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 • A specific gene specifies a polypeptide
– The DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is
translated into the polypeptide
http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/central_dogma/central_dogma.swf

DNA

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA

TRANSLATION

Protein

Figure 10.6A

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 • Studies of inherited metabolic disorders first
suggested that phenotype is expressed
through proteins
• Studies of the bread mold Neurospora crassa
led to the one gene-one polypeptide
hypothesis

Figure 10.6B

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 Mutate wild type fungus

*Supply all mutant isolates with

complete media

*Grow purified mutants

with minimal media
to find nutritional mutants

*Determine what is the nutritional limitation

 find mutation

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 There for the gene used to produce an enzyme
that helps cells manufacture Arginine amino acid
was mutated in that fungal strain
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Transcription produces genetic messages in the
form of RNA

RNA RNA nucleotide

polymerase

Direction of
transcription
Template
strand of DNA
Figure 10.9A
Newly made RNA

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 RNA Transcription
• Process in which the genetic information on
DNA is transferred to RNA
• During transcription only 1 DNA stand serves
as the template or pattern from which RNA is
formed.

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 RNA polymerase

• In transcription, the DNA of gene

DNA helix unzips Promoter

DNA Terminator
DNA
Initiation
– RNA nucleotides line
up along one strand
of the DNA following
the base-pairing rules Elongation Area shown
in Figure 10.9A

– The single-stranded
messenger RNA peels
away and the DNA Termination
Growing

strands rejoin
RNA

Completed RNA

RNA
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Figure 10.9B polymerase
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 RNA Transcription
1. Initiation
• The enzyme RNA polymerase attaches to the
promoter site on the DNA
• Promoter – a sequence of nucleotides that is
found on one of the DNA strands
– tells RNA polymerase to start transcription
and which of the two DNA strands to
transcribe

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 RNA Transcription
2. Elongation
• RNA nucleotides attach to the free DNA
nucleotides by hydrogen bonds one at a time
• As RNA synthesis continues the growing RNA
strand peels away from the DNA and the DNA
strands rejoin

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 RNA Transcription
3. Termination
• RNA polymerase reaches the terminator.
• Terminator – a sequence of bases on DNA
that signals the end of the gene
• The RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA
and the RNA molecule is complete

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10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving
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the nucleus http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072556781/student_view0/chapter14/animation_quiz_3.html

• Noncoding DNA
Exon Intron Exon Intron Exon

segments called Cap

Transcription
Addition of cap and tail
introns are RNA
spliced out transcript
with cap Introns removed Tail
and tail

• The coding
segments called Exons spliced together

exons are
mRNA

joined together
Coding sequence
NUCLEUS

• A cap and a tail

are added to CYTOPLASM

the ends Figure 10.10

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Genetic information written in codons is translated
into amino acid sequences

• The “words” of the DNA “language” are triplets

of bases called codons
– The codons in a gene specify the amino acid
sequence of a polypeptide

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 Gene 1 Gene 3

DNA molecule

Gene 2

DNA strand

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA

Codon
TRANSLATION

Polypeptide
Amino acid
Figure 10.7

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The genetic code is the Rosetta stone of life

• Virtually all
organisms
share the same
genetic code

Figure 10.8A

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 • An exercise in translating the genetic code
Transcribed strand

DNA

Transcription

RNA

Start Stop
codon Translation codon

Polypeptide
Figure 10.8B

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 Translation
• The process in which a polypeptide is
synthesized using the genetic information
encoded on an mRNA molecule
• The following are needed for translation to
occur
1. mRNA
- Contains the instructions for the assembly of
proteins
- Codon – a sequence of 3 bases on mRNA that
specifies a specific amino acid that will be added to
the polypeptide chain
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 Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters
during translation

• In the cytoplasm, a
Amino acid attachment site

ribosome attaches
to the mRNA and
translates its
message into a Hydrogen bond

polypeptide
• The process is aided RNA polynucleotide chain

by transfer RNAs

Anticodon
Figure 10.11A

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 • Each tRNA molecule has a triplet anticodon on
one end and an amino acid attachment site on
the other

Amino acid
attachment
site

Anticodon
Figure 10.11B, C

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 Translation
2. tRNA (transfer RNA)
• Carries an amino acid to the ribosome
• A tRNA molecule is composed of
– A single strand of RNA (about 80 nucleotides)
– A loop at one end that contains the anticodon
– Anticodon – a sequence of 3 bases on tRNA
that are complementary to the bases on mRNA
– At the opposite end of the loop is a site where
an amino acit can attach
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 Translation

3. Amino acids
• Located in the cytoplasm
• Synthesized from other chemicals or obtained
from food

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 10.12 Ribosomes build polypeptides

Next amino acid

Growing to be added to
polypeptide polypeptide
tRNA P site A site
molecules
Growing
Large polypeptide
subunit
tRNA

P A
mRNA
mRNA
binding
site
Codons

mRNA Small
subunit

Figure 10.12A-C

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 Translation
4. Ribosomes
• Organelles where protein synthesis occurs
• Consists of 2 subunits each made up of
proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
– Small subunit – has binding site for mRNA
– Large subunit – has binding site for tRNA

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An initiation codon marks the start of an mRNA
message

Start of genetic message

End

Figure 10.13A

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 • mRNA, a specific tRNA, and the ribosome
subunits assemble during initiation

Large
Initiator tRNA ribosomal
subunit
P site
A site

Start
codon Small ribosomal
mRNA subunit

1 2

Figure 10.13B

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 New
peptide
Growing bond Stage 4 Elongation
polypeptide forming
A succession of tRNAs
add their amino acids to
the polypeptide chain as
the mRNA is moved
through the ribosome,
one codon at a time.
Codons
mRNA
Polypeptide

Stage 5 Termination
The ribosome recognizes
a stop codon. The poly-
peptide is terminated and
Stop Codon released.

Figure 10.15 (continued)

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10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the
polypeptide chain until a stop codon
terminates translation

• The mRNA moves a codon at a time relative to

the ribosome
– A tRNA pairs with each codon, adding an amino
acid to the growing polypeptide

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 Amino acid

Polypeptide
A
P site site
Anticodon

mRNA
1 Codon recognition

mRNA
movement

Stop
codon

New 2 Peptide bond

peptide formation
bond

3 Translocation Figure 10.14

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 Steps of Translation
1. Initiation
• mRNA binds to the ribosome
• The start codon (AUG) is reached
• The first amino acid (methionine) is brought
to the ribosome by the tRNA
2. Elongation
• Amino acids are added one by one to a
growing polypeptide chain
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 Steps of Translation
3. Termination
• The stop codon is reached
• The completed polypeptide is released

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 Modification of the polypeptide
Endoplasmic reticulum
• Collects proteins made by the ribosomes
• Packages them into vesicles which move
to the Golgi apparatus

Golgi apparatus
• Proteins are altered, packaged into
vesicles, and transported to different
parts of the cell or exported out of the cell

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 • Summary of DNA
TRANSCRIPTION

transcription
Stage 1 mRNA is
and mRNA
RNA
transcribed from a
DNA template.
translation
polymerase

Amino acid
TRANSLATION
Stage 2 Each amino
Enzyme acid attaches to its
proper tRNA with the
help of a specific
enzyme and ATP.
tRNA

Initiator Anticodon
tRNA Stage 3 Initiation of
Large polypeptide synthesis
ribosomal
subunit The mRNA, the first
tRNA, and the
ribosomal subunits
Start Small
Codon ribosomal come together.
mRNA
subunit

Figure 10.15

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Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell
is DNARNAprotein

• The sequence of codons in DNA spells out the

primary structure of a polypeptide
– Polypeptides form proteins that cells and
organisms use

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Mutations can change the meaning of genes

• Mutations are changes in the DNA base

sequence
– These are caused by errors in DNA replication
or by mutagens
– The change of a single DNA nucleotide causes
sickle-cell disease

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 Normal hemoglobin DNA Mutant hemoglobin DNA

mRNA mRNA

Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin

Glu Val

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Figure 10.16A

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 • Types of mutations
NORMAL GENE

mRNA
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Ala

BASE SUBSTITUTION

Met Lys Phe Ser Ala

BASE DELETION Missing

Met Lys Leu Ala His

Figure 10.16B

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 Types of Mutations
There are 2 general categories of mutations:
1. Base substitution
• The replacement of one nucleotide with
another
• Can result in no change in the protein
• An insignificant change
– The altered amino acid has no effect on the
function of the protein

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 Types of Mutations
• A change that is crucial to life of the organism
– The altered amino acid has an effect on the
function of the protein

2. Base insertions or deletions

• One or more bases are added or deleted from
the DNA
• Often have disastrous effects
– The nucleotide sequence following the change
alters the genetic message (reading frame)
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 Mutations are Useful
Mutations are useful because they
1. Provide diversity that allows evolution by
natural selection to occur
2. Essential tool for geneticists
• Create different alleles needed for genetic
research

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