 The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to

one another and to their physical surroundings.

 The branch of biology dealing with the relations and
interactions between organisms and their
environment, including other
 organisms.
 Levels of Studying Ecology
 Biosphere: The earth’s ecosystem interacting with the physical
environment as a whole to maintain a steady state system
intermediate in the flow of energy between the high energy input of
the sun and the thermal sink of space (merges with atmosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere…).
 Biome: Large scale areas of similar vegetation and climatic
characteristics.
 Ecosystem: Set of organisms and abiotic components connected by
the exchange of matter and energy (forest, lake, coastal ocean).
 Community: Interacting populations which significantly affect
each other’s distributions and abundance (intertidal, hot
spring, wetland). ↓ Population: Group of interacting and
interbreeding organisms ↓ Cell/Organism → Organelle →
Molecule → Atom

 Ecology is the study of living beings in their habitat or a study

of the interaction of the organisms with their environment
and among themselves.
 An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of
all plants, animals and micro-organisms
(biotic factors) in an area functioning
together with all of the non-living physical
(abiotic) factors of the environment.
 1.Natural Ecosystems
 Natural Ecosystems are self-regulatory ecosystems and are driven by
the solar energy: Forest Ecosystem, Grassland Ecosystem, Desert
Ecosystem,Lake, Pond, SwampEcosystem.

 2. Artificial Ecosystems
 It is also known as human engineered Ecosystems. These are not
self- regulated ecosystems. These ecosystems depend on human
interventions to meet their energy requirements e.g paddy field
ecosystem ,plantation crops ecosystems etc.
 1. The components of Ecosystem are Biotic
and Abiotic
 Biotic – All living members , microbes, plants
and animals.
 Abiotic components include different media
such as soil, wter, minerals, sunlight,
atmospheric, gases etc.
 The biotic components are classified into “Autotrophs”
(producers and Heterotrophs (Consumers)
 The consumers are classified into macro-consumers i.e
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
 Micro consumers i.e Saprotrops or decomposers.
 Abiotic further classified into physical and chemical
components.
 1. Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They
contain a mixture of weathered rock fragments, highly altered
soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms.
Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural
growing medium for organisms. The vegetation found
growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this component of
an ecosystem through nutrient cycling

 2. The atmosphere provides organisms found within

ecosystems with carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and
oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation,
transpiration and precipitation cycle water between the
atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
 3. Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the
atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water into the
atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and me-
tabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life.
 4. Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage
of water, up to and even exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a
very few cells can survive if their water content drops below
10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%
 5. Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and
are trans-located in plants. It is also necessary for the
maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for
photosynthesis chemical reactions
 Biotic Components:
 The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-
organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an
ecosystem form the biotic components.
 On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic
components can be classified into three main groups:
 (A) Producers
 (B) Consumers
 (C) Decomposers or Reducers.
 (A) Producers:
(A) Producers:
The green plants have chlorophyll with the help
of which they trap solar energy and change it
into chemical energy of carbohydrates using
simple inorganic compounds namely water and
carbon dioxide. This process is known as photo-
synthesis. As the green plants manufacture their
own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto
= self, trophos = feeder)
The chemical energy stored by the producers is
utilised partly by the producers for their own
growth and survival and the remaining is stored
in the plant parts for their future use.
(B) Consumers:
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to
synthesise their own food. Therefore, they depend
on the producers for their food. They are known as
heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other, trophos = feeder)
The consumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or
Herbivores:
These are the animals which feed on plants or the
producers. They are called herbivores. Examples are
rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order
Consumers or Primary Carnivores:
The animals which feed on the herbivores are called
the primary carnivores. Examples are cats, foxes,
snakes etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:
These are the large carnivores which feed on the
secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or
Omnivores:
These are the largest carnivores which feed on the
tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other
animal. Examples are lions and tigers.
 (C) Decomposers or Reducers:
 Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They
breakdown the dead organic materials of
producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for
their food and release to the environment the
simple inorganic and organic substances
produced as by-products of their metabolisms.
 These simple substances are reused by the
producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of
materials between the biotic community and the
abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The
decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e.,
sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder)
Aquatic systems are those that contain plants and animals
that predominantly depend on a significant amount of
water to be present for at least part of the year.
 A dense, impenetrable thicket of shrubs or
dwarf trees. A vegetation type dominated by
shrubs and small trees, especially evergreen
trees with thick, small leaves
 A large underwater formation created from
the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral
animals; can also refer to the animals living
on and near the coral reef.
 A desert is a landscape form or region that
receives very little precipitation. Deserts can
be defined as areas that receive an average
annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (10
in), or as areas in which more water is lost
than falls as precipitation.In the Köppen
climate classification system, deserts are
classed as BWh (hot desert) or BWk
(temperate desert).
 Human ecosystems are complex cybernetic
systems that are increasingly being used by
ecological anthropologists and other scholars
to examine the ecological aspects of human
communities in a way that integrates multiple
factors as economics, socio-political
organization, psychological factors, and
physical factors related to the environment.
 Any marine environment, from pond to
ocean, in which plants and animals interact
with the chemical and physical features on
the environment.
 Mixed rainforest or mixed forest) is a
rainforest classification where eucalypt forest
grows in combination with Cool Temperate
rainforest species.
 A tropical or subtropical grassland containing
scattered trees and drought-resistant
undergrowth.
 Is the subfield of ecology which deals with the
interaction of plants, animals and humans with
each other and with their environment in urban
or urbanizing settings. Analysis of urban settings
in the context of ecosystem ecology (looking at
the cycling of matter and the flow of energy
through the ecosystem) can result in healthier,
better managed communities. Studying the
factors which allow wild plants and animals to
survive (and sometimes thrive) in built
environments can also create more livable
spaces. It allows people to adapt to the changing
environment while preserving the resources.
 This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and
so forth illustrates the two main ideas about
how ecosystems function: ecosystems have
energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials.
These two processes are linked, but they are
not quite the same
• Energy enters the biological system as light
energy, or photons, is transformed into
chemical energy in organic molecules by
cellular processes including photosynthesis
and respiration, and ultimately is converted
to heat energy. This energy is dissipated,
meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once
it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the
continued input of solar energy, biological
systems would quickly shut down. Thus the
earth is an open system with respect to
energy
 During decomposition these materials are not
destroyed or lost, so the earth is a closed
system with respect to elements (with the
exception of a meteorite entering the system
now and then). The elements are cycled
endlessly between their biotic and abiotic
states within ecosystems. Those elements
whose supply tends to limit biological activity
are called nutrients.
 The transformations of
energy in an ecosystem
begin first with the input of
energy from the sun.
Energy from the sun is
captured by the process of
photosynthesis. Carbon
dioxide is combined with
hydrogen (derived from the
splitting of water
molecules) to produce
carbohydrates (CHO).
Energy is stored in the high
energy bonds of adenosine
triphosphate, or ATP