Simplified Reference Model

Application Application

Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Radio Medium

1
Reference Model

Physical Layer :
 Bit Stream to signal conversion
 Frequency selection
 Generation of carrier frequency
 Data modulation over carrier frequency
 Data encryption

2
Reference Model

Data Link Layer :

 Data Multiplexing
 Error detection and correction
 Medium Access

In essence :
 Reliable point-to-point transfer of data
between sender and receiver.

3
Reference Model

Network Layer :
 Connection setup
 Packet routing
 Handover between networks
 Routing
 Target device location
 Quality of service (QoS)

4
Reference Model

Transport Layer :
 Establish End-to-End Connection
 Flow control
 Congestion control
 TCP and UDP
 Applications – Browser etc.

5
Reference Model

Application Layer:
 Multimedia applications
 Applications that interface to various
kinds of data formats and transmission
characteristics
 Applications that interface to various
portable devices

6
Overlay Networks - the global goal

integration of heterogeneous fixed and

mobile networks with varying
transmission characteristics

regional
vertical
handover

metropolitan area

horizontal
handover
campus-based

in-house
7
 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

Frequency Ranges

twisted coax cable optical transmission

pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Fequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency
8
Frequencies

kHz Range (Low and Very Low

frequencies)
 Used for short distances using twisted copper wires
Several KHz to MHZ (Medium and High
Frequencies)
 For transmission of hundreds of radio stations in the
AM and FM mode
 Use co-axial cables
 Transmission power is several kW.

9
Frequencies

Several MHz to Terra Hz Range (VHF and

UHF)
 Typically 100 MHz to 800 MHz and
extending to terraHz)
 Conventional Analog TV (174-230 MHz
and 470-790 MHz)
 DAB Range (220 – 1472 MHz)

 DTV (470 – 872 MHz)

 Digital GSM (890-960MHz)

10
Frequencies

 3G Mobile Systems (1900-2200 MHz)

Super High(SH) and Extremely Super

High(ESH)
 Hundreds of GHz
 Fixed Satellite Services
 Close to infra-red.

11
Frequencies

 For Several TerraHz :

 Optical Transmission

Why do we need very high transmission

frequencies?
 The information content in video, satellite
data etc is enormous.
 If we need to accommodate many signals
simultaneously, we need a high bit rate
which in turn demands high frequency.
12
REGULATIONS

 International Telecommunications Union

(ITU), Geneva responsible for world-
wide coordination of telecommunications
activity.
 ITU – R (Radio Communications sector)
handles standardization in Wireless
sector.

13
REGULATIONS

ITU-R

Region-1 Region-2 Region-3

Europe, Middle East, Greenland, N & S Australia, New

Former Russia, Africa America Zealand

14
Frequency Allocation
Europe USA Japan

Cellular GSM 450-457, 479- AMPS, TDMA, CDMA PDC

Phones 486/460-467,489- 824-849, 810-826,
496, 890-915/935- 869-894 940-956,
960, TDMA, CDMA, GSM 1429-1465,
1710-1785/1805- 1850-1910, 1477-1513
1880 1930-1990
UMTS (FDD) 1920-
1980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 1900-
1920, 2020-2025
Cordles CT1+ 885-887, 930- PACS 1850-1910, 1930- PHS
s 932 1990 1895-1918
Phones CT2 PACS-UB 1910-1930 JCT
864- 254-380
868
DECT
1880-1900
Wireles IEEE 802.11 902-928 IEEE 802.11
s LANs 2400-2483 IEEE 802.11 2471-2497
HIPERLAN 2 2400-2483 5150-5250
5150-5350, 5470- 5150-5350, 5725-5825
5725
Others RF-Control RF-Control RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433, 315, 915 426, 868
868 15
REGULATIONS

PDC : Personal Digital Cellular

NMT : Nordic Mobile Telephone
DECT : Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telephone
PACS : Personal Access Communications
System

16
SIGNALS

A sine wave is represented as

g(t) = At sin (ω.t + ø)

Here, At : Maximum amplitude

w : angular frequency = 2πf
ø : Phase Displacement

17
SIGNALS

Different representations of signals

 amplitude (amplitude domain)
 frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
 phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase  in
polar coordinates)

A [V] A [V] Q = M sin 

t[s] 
I= M cos 

18
Signals

According to fourier
series, it is possible to
reconstruct the original
signal using the sine
and cosine functions.
 

G(t) = ½ C +  a sin(2nft)   b cos(2nft)

n n

n1 n1

In the above eqn, C represents the DC component.

19
Signals

 As n varies, increasing number of

harmonics are added to the signal
representation.
 As n approaches infinity, the original
signal is truly represented.
 The given signal has to be modulated
over a career frequency.

20
Antenas

 An Antenna aids in transforming a wired

medium to a wireless medium
 Antennas couple electromagnetic energy
to the space and from the space TO and
FROM a wire/coaxial cable.

21
ISOTROPIC RADIATOR ANTENNA

 Theoretical reference antenna is the

isotropic radiator.
 It emits equal power in all directions.

z
y z

y x
x

22
Antennas

Practical Antennas Exhibit Directional properties.

Thin Centre-fed Dipole:

λ/2

• Dipole consists of two collinear conductors separated by a small feeding

gap.
• Generally, the length of the Dipole is half the wavelength of the signal to
be transmitted/received.(λ = C/f where is is the speed of light {3*10 8 m/s)

23
Wavelength
Forms of electromagnetic radiation like radio waves, light
waves or infrared (heat) waves make characteristic
patterns as they travel through space. Each wave has a
certain shape and length. The distance between peaks
(high points) is called wavelength.

24
Dipole Antenna

• When the signal is obstructed by mountains, buildings etc, the power

of the sinal gets weak.
• It can be boosted by additional devices.

25
Directional Antenna

Several directional antennas can be combined to form

a sectored antenna.

26
Signal Propagation Range
 Transmission range
 communication possible
 low error rate
 Detection range
 detection of the signal sender
possible
 no communication transmission

possible distance
detection
 Interference range
 signal may not be interference

detected
 signal adds to the
background noise

27
Path Loss during Transmission
Propagation in free space is always in a straight line like that of light.
 Receiving power proportional to 1/d² in vacuum – much more in
real environments
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
 Fading (frequency dependent)
 shadowing
 reflection at large obstacles
 refraction depending on the density of a medium
 scattering at small obstacles
 diffraction at edges

28
Path Loss Effects

shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction

29
Signal Propagation effects

Signal Penetration through objects :

 At lower frequency, the penetration is higher.
 At very high frequencies, the transmission
behavior of the wave is close to that of light,

30
Propagation behavior of waves
 Ground Wave (<2 MHz): Can follow earth’s
surface and can propagate long distances
[Submarine communication, AM Radio etc]
 Sky Wave (2-30 MHz) : Waves are reflected.
They can bounce back and forth between
ionosphere and earth’s surface and can travel
around the world.
 Line of Sight [>30 MHz) : The waves are bent
by refraction.

31
Multipath Propagation

32
33
Multipath Propagation

 Radio waves sent from the sender to the

receiver can travel in a straight line as
well as may reach the destination after
being reflected by several obstacles.
 The signal arrives at different times at
the receiver. THIS EFFECT IS CALLED
DELAY SPREAD

34
Multipath Propagation

 The original signal gets a spread signal

 The order of delays is 2 to 12 micro
secs.

35
Effects of delay spread

 Short-pulse signals will be spread into a

broader impulse or several weaker
pulses.
 In the fig, the impulse at the sender is
received as three smaller pulses at the
receiver.
 Also, the power level of the received
pulses will be low. So, they will be
perceived as noise.

36
Effects-2 of delay spread

Inter Symbol Interference :

 The second symbol is separated from
the first in the transmitted signal.
 At the receiver, they overlap because of
delays.
 If the pulses represent symbols, they will
interfere with each other and there will
be INTER SYMBOL INTERFERENCE.

37
One possible solution

 Receiver should know the delay

characteristics of different paths.
 Receiver can compensate for the
distortion
 Receiver can equalize the signals based
on the channel characteristics.

38
Effects of mobility
 Channel characteristics change over time
and location
 signal paths change
 different delay variations of different signalolng term
power
fading
parts
 different phases of signal parts

  quick changes in the power received

t
(short term fading) short term fading

39
Solution for Long Term Fading

 Senders can increase/decrease power

on a regular basis so that the received
power is within certain bounds.

40
Long Term Fading

 Additional changes in
 distance to sender
 obstacles further away

  slow changes in the average power

received (long term fading)

41